Euripides’ social and moral teachings through: Medea, Alcestis and the Troyan Women

Br. Alexis Enriquez, LC

Introduction

Regarded by Aristotle as “the most tragic of the poets,” Euripides provided deeply spiritual, moral, and psychological explorations of exceptional and domestic life at a time when Athenian confidence and certainty were moving toward breakup. Euripides reflects the various intellectual, cultural, and moral controversies of his day [1].

Euripides challenged conventions by depicting strong, passionate female characters and cynical, often weak male mythological heroes. He was considered more of a social critic than his contemporaries, who disparaged his emphasis on clever women [2].

Although he drew from the sources of ancient mythology, Euripides treated his characters realistically; they were no longer idealized symbols removed from normal life but rather behaved like their Athenian contemporaries. Euripides shared the intellectual skepticism of his time and in his plays attacked the moral and religious dogmas of the past, which still enjoyed a certain degree of acceptance among the common people. His attitude and mood ranged between these two extremes, sometimes even within the same play. He was able to demonstrate human corruption and weakness with bitterness and profound realism, while at the same time reflecting in his plays a profound respect for human heroism, dignity, and passion.

In each of the sections, I want to provide the reader with my personal reflections upon the characters’ behaviors, motivations and consequences of their actions, as well as an assessment on the values which are portrayed in the different plays. This with the sole purpose of helping the reader to understand Euripides’ explicit moral teachings and advancing on making these situations our own, so to that we acquire the capacity to feel with more sensibility and greater reality on how much people suffers nowadays, because in the end, we are humans, and the advantage of it is that we can learn from other people’s mistakes.

Chapter 1 Medea

1.1 Introduction

When Medea, commonly regarded as Euripides’ masterpiece, was first performed at Athens’s Great Dionysia, Euripides was awarded the third (and last) prize, behind Sophocles and Euphorion. It is not difficult to understand why. Euripides violates its audience’s most cherished gender and moral illusions, while shocking with the unimaginable [3] .

This tragedy is not only the story of a failed marriage, but it is also a pedagogical tragedy, so much can be learned from both Medea and Jason. They teach us valuable lessons how not to act within a relationship; I think this is especially important for today’s society which lacks mostly of man committed to fulfill a responsibility.

1.2 Medea’s historical context

Euripides crafted Medea for the fifth-century B.C. Athenian audience during the city’s Golden Age, a time when Athens triumphed over Persia, gained political independence, and asserted Mediterranean dominance—events the young Euripides witnessed firsthand. This play boldly confronted Athenian morality, exposing the repercussions of societal decadence. The Golden Age waned in 405 B.C. with Athens’ defeat by Sparta at Aegospotami, signaling the onset of its decline, hastened by the Peloponnesian War’s end, which forced a transformation of its political system.

Athenian society, shaped by progressive philosophical strides, contrasted with its restrictive gender norms, relegating women to a subordinate, domestic role without political agency.

In Medea, Euripides subverts these conventions: Jason, far from a heroic ideal, appears opportunistic and self-interested, while Medea defies the expected loyal wife and mother, emerging as a powerful, vengeful figure who challenges traditional values, reflecting Euripides’ intent to probe and critique social norms.

1.3 Summary of the tragedy

To fully grasp the tragedy of Medea, we must first revisit Jason’s history, which sheds light on the events that unfold. Jason, tasked with retrieving the Golden Fleece, leads the Argonauts through perilous trials to Colchis, where he meets Medea, a sorceress and daughter of King Aeëtes. Captivated by love, Medea betrays her father, using her magic to help Jason secure the fleece by overcoming formidable challenges. After seizing the fleece, Jason and Medea flee, with Medea killing her brother Apsyrtus to delay pursuit. They reach Iolcus, where Medea aids Jason in avenging his uncle Pelias’ usurpation, leading to their exile and the eventual unraveling of their bond.

Medea’s play begins in Corinth, where Jason, driven by ambition, accepts King Creon’s offer to marry his daughter Glauce, securing a princess and kingdom. He informs Medea casually, blind to the consequences of his greed. Devastated by betrayal after sacrificing everything for Jason, Medea’s grief turns to fury, prompting her to devise a horrific act of vengeance.

1.4 Characters and their development throughout the tragedy

1.4.1 Jason: Amidst his trials, he discovered a loyal wife willing to follow him wherever he might go. Their love proved a great asset, for when Jason, unable to claim the throne that was his by rightful inheritance, was forced into exile with Medea in the kingdom of Corinth, they conceived two sons during this time. « Medea: I willingly deceived my father; left my home; with you I came to Iolcus by Mount Pelion, showing much love and little wisdom» [4] .

Against this backdrop, Jason’s reputation opened doors when the king of Corinth offered his daughter Glauce’s hand in marriage, presenting Jason with a chance to become king alongside a royal princess, securing a prosperous future. As a result, he chose to abandon Medea for this better prospect, oblivious to the deep pain of a broken heart or the extremes a scorned woman might reach, as evident when he informs Medea of his decision.

«Jason: You are banished. Think of yourself lucky to be let off with banishment. However, I will not desert a friend. I have carefully considered your problem, and come now, despite everything, to see that your children are not sent away with an empty purse, or unprovided» . And Medea replies «Medea: You filthy coward! – if new any worse name for such unmanliness I’d use it» [5] .

Jason’s ambition ultimately left him solitary, bereft of children, wife, and kingdom. No gods stood to shield him; Jason’s fate unfolds as starkly as life itself, for in this tragedy, there exists no idealization of the hero nor a flawless resolution, let us feel Jason’s sorrow as he talks to Zeus.

Jason: Zeus, do you hear how I am mocked, rejected, by this savage beast polluted with her children’s blood? But now, as time and strength permit, I will lament this grievous day, and call the gods witness, how you killed my sons, and now refuse to let me touch or burry them [6] .

1.4.2 Medea: She met Jason during his quest for the Golden Fleece in King Aeëtes’ realm, where she fell in love with him; after securing the fleece, they fled together to Corinth as a devoted pair. In Corinth, their family expanded with two sons, fulfilling Jason’s wish for a lineage, though Medea, seen as a foreigner, struggled to find a respected place to live. Her abandonment of her homeland for a foreign man drew scorn, leaving them a royal couple without a kingdom.

Medea exemplifies men’s failure to foresee their actions’ fallout. To Jason, swapping Medea for Glauce was a simple trade, like exchanging one weapon for another, seizing a brighter future without grasping the inevitable consequences. Another theme which Medea suffers from, emerges both in the tragedy and in our own time; that is the lack of commitment on the part of men to remain faithful to the woman they have chosen to love, which Medea makes evident with her dialogue.

Medea: I accept my place; but this blow that has fallen on me was not to be expected. It has crushed my heart. Life has no pleasure left, dear friends. I want to die. Jason was my whole life; he knows that well. Now he has proved himself the most contemptible of men [7] .

1.5 Characteristics found in the characters as in the plot

1.5.1 Vengeance: This value stands as one of the most potent forces within the tragedy. Indeed, the resolution of the drama is precipitated by the vengeance Medea seeks to enact against Jason and so well portrays in her dialogues.

Medea: So, I make one request. If I can find a way to work revenge on Jason for his wrongs to me, say nothing. A woman’s weak and timid in most matters; the noise of war, the look of steel, makes her a coward. But touch her right in marriage, and there’s no bloodier sprit [8] .

Yet it is profoundly intriguing to consider that Medea’s wrath was provoked by Jason. Here, Euripides seeks to illustrate that, in a certain sense, values and their opposing vices may be inversely proportional. Such was the immense love Medea bore for Jason that her vengeance warranted an equally vast measure of destruction.

1.5.2 Rhetoric: King Creon employs rhetoric to persuade Medea to depart from his land and accept her fate as an outlaw and a scorned woman. His aim is to avoid dealing with the issue of Jason’s former wife. Through such actions, Euripides may indeed be inviting us to actively contemplate the way women were treated in that era, revealing the genuine suffering they endured, even though they could not voice it themselves, as we see below.

Creon: You there, Medea, scowling rage against your husband! I order you out of Corinth; take your sons and go into exile. Waste no time; I’m here to see this order enforced. And I’m not going back into my palace until I’ve put you safe outside my boundaries [9] .

Multiple times throughout the tragedy, Jason endeavors to explain to Medea the various reasons behind his actions, arguing that he has selected the other princess for a greater benefit to the entire family. Whether to justify himself or to maintain a clear conscience, nothing Jason says can assuage Medea’s pain.

Medea’s skillful rhetoric shines when she persuades the king of Corinth to delay her immediate exile by one day. Facing lifelong banishment, she requests this brief reprieve, claiming it’s to prepare for her departure, having lost her place on her father’s land after leaving it for Jason, we see how she employs it.

Medea: This one day let me stay, to settle some plan for my exile, make provision for my two sons, since their own father is not concerned to help them. Show me pitty: You are a father too; you should feel kindly towards them. For myself, exile is nothing. I weep for them; their fate is very hard [10].

1.5.3 Infidelity: Jason and Medea both perpetrate betrayals. Jason abandons Medea’s love and his esteemed role as a father in Greek society, prompting Euripides to critique Athenian morals through his actions.

Medea betrays her father’s plans and her royal status by choosing Jason, then deceives Creon, who grants her a day’s reprieve in Corinth, which she uses to plot cruel revenge. Lastly, she betrays her children’s love, her former affection for Jason turning to hate and her maternal bond twisting into a motive for their murder, despite their trust in her.

1.5.4 Divorce: Quite possibly one of the earliest writings in human history in which we encounter what today we know as “divorce.” When we observe Jason succumbing to his selfishness and greed, one cannot help but draw parallels to men in contemporary times who believe that amassing wealth is the path to happiness.

Similarly, we see a mother who rejects motherhood, preferring to stand on the front lines of battle rather than remain confined at home with maternal duties, for she feels her worth diminished if her actions are less conspicuous than those of her husband. «Medea: We get to be bad or good? For women, divorce is not respectable; to repel the man, not possible. I’d rather stand three times in the front line than bear one child» [11] .

Chapter 2 Alcestis

2.1 Introduction

Staged in the year 438 B.C., the tragedy of Alcestis stands as the oldest surviving work by Euripides. If we position ourselves accurately within the timeline, we realize that this tragedy predates the Peloponnesian War, a conflict that would usher in the decline of Athens.

Consequently, Euripides, during this period of his literary career, allows himself the freedom to explore a variety of themes, for example in Alcestis, which main theme is love and sacrifice; in contrast to his later tragedies, which are deeply influenced by the war and people’s suffering.

2.2 Alcestis’ historical context

In Athens, prior to the Peloponnesian War, society was characterized by a rigid hierarchical division among citizens, metics, and slaves. Women, on the other hand, were devoid of any civil rights, their lives confined entirely to domestic duties.

Democracy reigned as the preeminent political system, facilitating the subsequent development of a patriarchal society that fostered reverence for the arts, including literature, philosophy, and architecture.

Moreover, rapid militarization proved to be a fundamental element in the strength of Athens, as its maritime fleet enabled control over trade routes and, above all, positioned the city as a constant threat to Sparta, which would later emerge as its rival during the war [12] .

2.3 Summary of the tragedy

Prior to the play, Apollo was living in exile from Mount Olympus, staying with Admetus in Thessaly. The friendship grew and Apollo wanted to show his kindness towards his host by rewarding him with a larger life. In the play it happened that Admetus was meant to die, but the condition for skipping death was to find a voluntary to die in his place; no kin of Admetus was willing to die for him. Except for Alcestis, Admetus’ wife.

Now the god Thanatos, is clutching Alcestis’ life little by little, there is nothing Admetus can do while he contemplates Alcestis dying before him, it is only when all this matter becomes known for Heracles that we see a resolution [13] .

Heracles arrives in Thessaly, expecting to enjoy the hospitality of Admetus, who does not disappoint him, even though the house is in mourning. He conceals the identity of the dead, and welcomes Heracles in. Pheres, the father of Admetus, arrives to pay his respects. Because Pheres had refused to die for his son, Admetus angrily turns him away, and they debate the worth of a life. Heracles resolves to rectify the situation by fighting the god Thanatos and bringing Alcestis back to life, to reencounter her husband. Though reluctant, Admetus finally accepts his friend’s gift, turns out to be Alcestis, alive and well.

2.4 Characters and their development throughout the tragedy

2.4.1 Alcestis: The wife of Admetus, princess of Thessaly, emerges as the character who displays the greatest fortitude and valor throughout the tragedy. While Heracles may be prepared to wrestle Death itself to restore Alcestis to life, she, in turn, willingly offers her own life for her husband—a choice that appears irrevocable.

Undoubtedly, her transformation elevates her from virtuous to exemplary. As a mother and wife within a family, Alcestis already embodies profound virtue and love, qualities that her actions magnify even further.

Yet now she offers her life so that her husband may continue to live, and throughout her dialogues, we consistently observe that she does so with a profound purity of intention. « Alcestis: Of my own free will I gave my life to let you live. I am dying for you » [14] .

2.4.2 Admetos: King of Thessaly, Admetus is a youthful and vibrant ruler who, despite the mourning in his realm, extends generous hospitality to Heracles, a virtue affirmed by Apollo, who recalls the refuge Admetus provided him in a time of need. Yet, his character also reveals flaws, such as the selfishness displayed in his attempt to evade death—a childish and capricious act. This selfishness becomes more pronounced when he permits his wife, Alcestis, to be the sole individual willing to die in his stead. His father, King Pheres, rebukes him with authoritative words, imparting a profound lesson by challenging Admetus for blaming him for Alcestis’ death. Admetus’ transformation unfolds after his encounter with Heracles, when he humbly accepts his friend’s gift: Alcestis, restored to life. Thus, Admetus matures, overcoming his initial immaturity to embrace his wife with a love refined by adversity.

2.4.3 Heracles: In this tragedy, Heracles stands as proof that not all heroes are selfish or ungrateful. His transformation emerges when he recognizes what truly matters to those around him. Simple yet profound is his inner evolution, as he becomes aware of the mourning in Thessaly and resolves to act. He could easily have continued his personal revelry, indulging in the comforts Admetus provided, but instead, he chose to step beyond his ease, risking his own life to bestow upon his friend the greatest gift imaginable. « Heracles: Admetos, welcome your guest. Here, reach out your hand. Now take her hand in yours » [15] .

2.4.4 Pheres: Pheres, the father of Admetus, might well serve as a father to all who read this essay, because he is the voice of prudence and reason for a son who needs it so much. With great manliness and paternal love, he corrects his son in a manner few can, requiring profound virtue, love, and patience. His significant intervention occurs when he arrives in Thessaly to offer condolences for his son’s recently deceased wife.

Upon hearing this, Admetus rages, believing his father should have sacrificed his own life for him. Yet Pheres, with steadfast patience and truth, points out all the errors Admetus has caused through his selfishness. « Pheres: I am not obliged to die for you as well, or do you think that my father died for me? » [16] .

In terms of his character development, we behold a father at his zenith, loving his son to such an extent that he refuses to remain silent in the face of his errors, compelled by unconditional paternal love to correct him.

2.5 Characteristics found in the characters as in the plot

2.5.1 Friendship: A clear example of this virtue is evident in the friendship between Apollo and Admetus. When Apollo needed a place to serve his sentence, Admetus proved himself a friend who gives generously, expecting nothing in return. « Apollo: I served as cowherd for a good and generous man- a man who now is my friend- Admetos» [17]. Thus, when Apollo departs from his friend’s presence, he wishes to grant him a boon as a token of gratitude for Admetus’ kindness toward him.

Later in the tragedy, we encounter Heracles, an anticipated guest at Admetus’ palace. Despite the profound sorrow he was enduring, Admetus managed to provide his friend with the finest comforts, the greatest of which was concealing the cause of his grief so as not to burden Heracles with his personal mourning. In response, Heracles acted with notable maturity and a sincere heart. « Heracles: Alcestis is dead, I must bring her back to life, safe to Admetos to discharge my debt of gratitude and love » [18]. This is the mark of a truly friendly offering support possible. In this instance, it was within Heracles’ power to reclaim Alcestis from the grasp of Death, and so he did, bringing an end to his friend’s sorrow.

2.5.2 Love: In this tragedy, love reveals itself in a bittersweet manner. Pheres rebukes Admetus sternly, not out of vengeance, but to unveil the consequences of his actions, wielding love as a potent force to enlighten his son’s life and spur change through harsh yet genuine words.

Conversely, the unconditional love between Alcestis and Admetus shines as the climax: despite Admetus’ selfishness, Alcestis willingly sacrifices herself for him, offering her life in an act of complete devotion. This gesture embodies a profound marital love, where one surrenders oneself to grant life and joy to the other.

2.5.3 Maturity: This intangible virtue manifests throughout the play, most prominently in King Admetus, unfolding in a gradual and progressive manner. At the outset, Admetus clings to his desire to live, and when offered the chance to cheat Death through Apollo’s gift, he seizes it without hesitation. Yet at what cost? Nothing less than the life of his wife.

Had he persisted in this immature selfishness, Admetus would not have made the solemn vow he uttered upon Alcestis’ death. « Admetus: I will always love you, only you. No other woman will ever live with me again » [19]. Yet he does so, and we witness how profoundly he takes his wife’s departure upon realizing he has lost his life’s companion. This devastating blow of losing a loved one awakens him to his selfish attitude, fostering maturity. With this newfound perspective, he becomes capable of loving the revived Alcestis even more deeply.

2.5.4 Cost of decisions: The value and cost of decisions stand as a fundamental theme in this play. The first example arises with Admetus, who chooses to cheat Death, but at the price of finding someone willing to die in his stead. An honest decision, driven by the will to live, yet it costs him the loss of his wife.

A braver choice emerges when Heracles resolves to confront Death to retrieve Admetus’ beloved. Though somewhat reckless and impulsive, Heracles knows his deep motivation is to aid his friend, prompting him to risk his life for Alcestis without a second thought.

Chapter 3 The Troyan Women

3.1 Introduction

This play was composed in the Attic dialect by Euripides. Originally, The Trojan Women formed part of a trilogy penned by the same author, with the other two works, Alexander and Palamedes, having been lost to the passage of time.

Euripides addresses the theme of war and the consequences endured by its less fortunate survivors. This work offers a glimpse into an aspect we seldom consider: the suffering that follows in war’s wake. Once the dust of the battlefield settles, Euripides seeks to stir the emotions suppressed beneath the cries of men prepared to die for their homeland. His means of making these cries audible is through the Trojan women, left at the mercy of their enemies.

3.2 Troyan women’s historical context

The play was written in 415 B.C. during the Peloponnesian War (431 B.C. – 404 B.C.). Historians divide this war into three phases: the first, known as the Archidamian War (431 B.C. – 421 B.C.), largely dominated by Athenian offensives; the second (415 B.C. – 413 B.C.), a period marked by merciless Athenian invasions of numerous enemy islands; and the third, the Decelean War (412 B.C. – 404 B.C.), during which Sparta allied with Persia and its satraps, bringing a bloody and devastating end to the conflict. Shortly before the production of this play, two pivotal events occurred that provide significant clues about what may have inspired Euripides to craft this tragedy.

In 416 B.C., Athens executed two notable actions: the invasion of Melos, a small island in the Aegean Sea, where the men were slaughtered and the women and children enslaved—an act remembered as a heinous war crime—and the dispatch of a vast fleet to Sicily to support allies and subdue the enemy, yielding similarly ruthless outcomes.

While Euripides’ precise views on Athenian imperialism or his stance on war remain uncertain following Athens’ ultimate defeat, the brutality inflicted by Sparta and Persia likely prompted the Athenians to reflect on the war’s devastating toll.

3.3 Summary of the tragedy

The play commences on the final day of the Trojan War, as the city lies consumed by flames and the Achaeans prepare to set sail following their victory. « Hecuba: Get up from the ground, get up! Lift up your head. This is not Troy: Troy is no more » [20]. The Trojan women—Cassandra, Andromache, Hecuba, Helen, and Astyanax—stand in mourning over the body of Hector, fallen in battle. « Hecuba: How can I ever stop crying? I have everything to weep for: my homeland is gone, my children are gone, and my husband » [21]. Talthybius, herald of King Agamemnon, enters the scene to proclaim the fate awaiting these captives, while they, through dialogues with Hecuba and him, voice the profound anguish rending their souls. « Chorus: Look! Here comes the messenger from the Greek army, to serve our share of news. What will he say? » [22]. Euripides compels us to pause and contemplate the war’s aftermath, revealing that it not only claims lives and razes structures but obliterates entire civilizations and cultures, erasing all traces of those who have perished.

3.4 Characters and their development throughout the tragedy

3.4.1 Hecuba: She is the mother who suffers in silence. She is the one who must witness the murder of Hector, who was the hope of Troy. She is the one left widowed by Priam and, if that were not enough, she must also endure in the flesh the sight of her beloved empire crumbling at the hands of invaders.

Hecuba: I am a poor old woman: who will be my master? Who must I serve, where will I go? I am useless, I am old and weak, I am like a corpse. Will I have to serve them as a doorkeeper, or a nanny? [23] .

Throughout the tragedy, Hecuba displays remarkable resilience, offering words of understanding and encouragement each time Talthybius enters to deliver yet another wave of dire tidings. It is she, as the mother of all, who keeps alive the Trojan spirit of struggle, hope, and courage within her heart.

This strength, in my view, stems from her motherhood, a role that instills unconditional devotion, self-sacrifice, and a character forged by maternal love—qualities seldom fully grasped without the lens of such devotion. Toward the closure of the tragedy, a pivotal moment unfolds as Hecuba gives voice to all that has befallen her. In an exchange with Helen, whom she holds responsible for the Trojan War, Hecuba articulately conveys the collective suffering of Troy and lets Menelaus know what she is feeling.

Hecuba: Menelaus, I approve your plan to kill your wife. But flee her hellish sight! She’ll trap you with desire. She traps men’s eyes. Ruins cities, burns up homes: She has such charms! I know her. So do you, so do her victims [24].

3.4.2 Andromache: Wife of Hector and mother of Astyanax, she embodies feminine nobility amidst a war that erases all social distinctions, representing the strong and rational woman who stands by her family during the worst of times, supporting Hecuba even after the fall of Troy to the Greeks. Her first great sorrow was witnessing Achilles kill Hector on the battlefield, leaving her widowed and forcing her to raise Astyanax alone, taking on the role of both mother and father. « Andromache: Come back to my husband! Hector you are my defender, and to the Greeks, you’re ruin. Take me to Hades, how I long to die! » [25]

Moving on to the next painful moment for Andromache: it comes when the Greeks decide to annihilate any trace of Hector, including his descendants. To inflict even greater pain on Andromache, the Greeks, after deliberation, decide to kill Astyanax.

Talthybius comes to Andromache to convey the justification for their decision « Talthybius: Former wife of Hector, please don’t hate me. It was not my wish to bring this news of what the Greeks are planning » « Andromache: What’s this? Your words suggest you’ve brought bad news » « Talthybius: Your son here-well, they plan… how can I say it? » « Andromache: Won’t he come with me? » « Talthybius: No Greek will ever make your son his slave. They are going to kill your child. We must not raise a hero’s son. We have to throw him from the walls » [26].

Finally, she is informed that she will be kept alive as a slave. None other than Neoptolemus, the son of Achilles, has claimed Andromache as his personal servant.

Chorus: Poor woman where are they taking you on that carriage, along with the spoils that they hunted from Troy with their spears, to take away, for Achilles’ son to decorate his Phthian temples? [27].

3.4.3 Cassandra: She is the daughter of Hecuba, sister of Hector, and priestess of the god Apollo. She is the first among the Trojan women to receive a verdict regarding her fate as a prisoner of the Greeks. As a priestess of Apollo, she bears both the gift and the curse of foreseeing the future, with the unfortunate drawback that no one believes her prophecies.

Talthybius is tasked with informing her that she has been chosen as the concubine of King Agamemnon—a fate of no small significance, as this new status would completely strip her of her duties as a priestess. Now, her virginity would be taken by Agamemnon, and she would be deprived of her devotion to the gods.

Cassandra, however, knowing the fate that awaits Agamemnon, chooses to celebrate, presenting herself as the true victor and beneficiary of this sentence. She knows that in the future, Agamemnon will be murdered by his wife, and this knowledge fills her with a nearly cynical joy and triumph in front of all those present.

3.5 Characteristics found in the characters as in the plot

3.5.1 Revenge: Whether we like it or not, war always brings revenge; humans are terrible at forgiveness, and Cassandra makes that very clear to us. « Cassandra: “So, mother, do not grieve for Troy or for me because of my new husband, for by marrying him, I shall destroy my enemy and yours.” » [28]. Cassandra no longer cares whether she lives as a slave or dies in torment—she has transcended to another level. She has a motivation: revenge. Her goal is to make Menelaus, and his entire kingdom suffer.

3.5.2 Fear of future wars: Both the Achaeans and the Trojans endured ten years of a slow and agonizing war, leaving deep scars on both peoples. That is why, when the opportunity arose to end the war once and for all, the Achaeans did not hesitate to make radical decisions. « Talthybius: He said that we must not raise the son of a hero; he told us we must throw him from the wall » [29]. They concluded that if they wanted to extinguish any future spark of Trojan rebellion, they had to kill Hector’s infant son, Astyanax.

3.5.3 Survival: « Helen: Oh, no! On my knees, I beg you not to kill me, blaming me for a crime—an act of the gods! Forgive me! »[30]. Helen has managed to survive the war, even while living among the enemy, and now she seeks to return to her husband, General Menelaus. Just before setting sail, Menelaus and Helen engage in a long argument. The general, swayed by his emotions, leans toward allowing her aboard his ship. But then Hecuba intervenes with a voice of reason « Hecuba: “Let her not sail on your ship”. Menelaus: Why not? Does she weigh heavier now than before? » « Hecuba: “No lover ever stops loving, no matter what the woman thinks » « Menelaus: “It shall be as you wish: she will not board the ship I sail on. Your counsel is not without merit. When she arrives in Argos, she will die disgracefully, as she deserves » [31].

Conclusion

When we read the works of Euripides, we cannot help but consider how intimately they are tied to their historical context, from which emerges a desire to underscore both the positive and negative values and behaviors of Athenian society in the fifth century B.C.

Euripides is a figure who seeks to awaken society, to open their eyes to the stark reality of the various circumstances that the Athenians endured, such as the oppression of women and the dominance of patriarchal supremacy, the dreadful deeds that humans are capable of committing due to the traumas of war, and the immense sacrifices that we are willing to undertake solely for the sake of love.

Collectively, all these lessons that Euripides endeavors to impart to society do not, for the most part, conclude with valiant heroes returning to their palaces steeped in glory—an outcome far too fanciful, as our author well understands. Instead, he reveals to us that life is harsh, arduous, and at times scarcely joyful. Yet, despite all these adversities, he shows that humanity has learned to rise above the challenges of existence. In this same vein, we may find motivation for life, for as we glean the lessons embedded within the situations narrated in these tragedies, we become capable of extracting the wisdom that the characters themselves acquired through their trials.

Thus, we are prompted to think and reflect upon the modern world. Today, millions of individuals endure the very same circumstances that we have contemplated in this essay; consequently, these issues cease to feel distant or foreign to us.

In reading the preceding pages, we do not merely acquire knowledge—we are transformed. We gain the capacity to feel what countless others are experiencing, whether on the far side of the world or within our own families. This is the richness of ancient literature: it renders us more human.

My personal conclusion stems from having experienced pain, anguish, and a myriad of emotions that foster empathy. It is precisely through these experiences that I came to feel a profound connection with the diverse characters in literary works. And if there is anyone more real than a character, it is a human being.

By listening to and understanding the pain of these characters, I cultivated a heart, and ears attuned to their emotions, and by extension, to those of the people around me. Thus, these characters taught me what a real person might feel in moments of adversity and uncertainty. By allowing their pain to resonate within me, I gradually developed the capacity to be moved by works of art, musical compositions, and, more profoundly, by the grief of a mother who has lost her child in the turmoil of war, by a woman whose marriage has ended in tragedy, or by a husband who struggles to love fully yet persists in his efforts.

These are but three examples of the inner transformation I have achieved through this reflection. Universal literature seeks to open our hearts and ears to the deep emotions of others. This ability enables us, and will continue to enable us, to build bridges in our interpersonal relationships, ensuring that others feel heard, valued, and truly accompanied in both the challenging and joyful moments of their lives.

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VELLACOT, Medea and other plays, Penguin books, New York 1963
HORNBLOWER, Greek Tragedy, Encyclopedia Britannica, 2025.

[1] Cfr. N. MAMBROL, Analysis of Euripides’ Medea, Literary Theory and Criticism, 2020.

[2] Cfr. P. SALMOND, «Guide to the classics: Euripides’ Medea», 2018, in https://www.latrobe.edu.au/news/articles/2018/opinion/guide-to-the-classics-euripides-medea (referenced on April 7, 2025)

[3] N.MAMBROL,«Analysis of Euripides’ Medea», 2020, in https://literariness.org/2020/07/13/analysis-of-euripides-medea/ (referenced on March 21, 2025)

[4] EURIPIDES, «Medea» in P. VELLACOTT (edd.), Medea and other plays, Penguin books, New York 1963, 31.

[5] Ibid, 30-31.

[6] Ibid, 60-61.

[7] Ibid, 24.

[8] Ibid, 25.

[9] Ibid, 25.

[10] Ibid, 27.

[11] Ibid, 26.

[12] Cfr. S. HORNBLOWER, «Greek Tragedy in ancient Greek civilization in classical Greek civilization» , 2025, in https://www.britannica.com/place/ancient-Greece/Greek-tragedy (referenced on march 9, 2025)

[13] Cfr. Ibid

[14] EURIPIDES, Alcestis, Oxford University Press, New York (1974), 48. Translated by W. ARROWSMITH.

[15] Ibid, 91

[16] Ibid, 68

[17] Ibid, 33

[18] Ibid, 77

[19] Ibid, 50

[20] EURIPIDES, «The Troyan Women» in M. LEFKOWITZ – J. ROMM (edd.), The greek plays, Modern Library, New York 2017, 642.

[21] Ibid, 642.

[22] Ibid, 647.

[23] Ibid, 645.

[24]Ibid, 667-668.