Introduction
Serpents are one of the most worldwide spread animals, they are present in all the extensive range of ecosystems in the world, except of Antartica, Iceland, Ireland, Greenland, New Zeeland, and a few pacific islands[1]. And they do not look all the same, there are thousands of species, and they vary in size, color, behavior, habitat, etc. Serpents are one of the most feared animals, especially because of their fame as venomous and dangerous animals, even though only 600 species of the 3,900 species of serpents are venomous, and from those 600 only 200 are capable to kill a human[2]. These characteristics have allowed that almost every culture that has flourish in the eras of the world has the serpent, no matter how small or big in importance, as part of their cultures, mythologies, and religions, and with that its many and different symbolisms.
Nowadays when people hear the word serpent, they think of danger, evil, temptation, even the devil, but why is the symbol of the serpent so negative in most societies in the world? Today’s world has been formed by Christianity and the Abrahamic religions[3], and one way it has shaped our way of seeing the world is the symbol of the serpent; a symbol of evil, danger, temptation and ultimately the devil. But, what about the world before Christianity? How was the serpent seen before the tale of The Garden of Eden, before the Catholic Chruch changed the world and the way of seeing things?
Now this capstone will look at different civilizations, religions, and mythologies from the Middle East, through the Mediterranean Sea to the Mesoamerican kingdoms. It will see the role of the serpent in each of them and what its main symbolisms were. Then delve into the Christian world and how it changed so deeply and so extensible the symbol of the serpent. Finally, this capstone has the goal to help the Church in its most recent interpretations of the symbol of the serpent, thus leading to a better understanding of the animal itself and less fear and more respect for it.
The Symbol of the Serpent in Pre-Christian Context
Judaism
The oldest of the Abrahamic religions with nearly 4,000 years of history and development[4] has a few interpretations for the symbol of the serpent. It varies depending on the authority that is making the interpretation, first they have the direct one taken from Scripture, then the Rabbinic interpretations, the Hellenistic interpretation, the Kabbala, and the Qumran.
Judaism has its main references to the serpent in the book of Genesis, where the serpent tempted and deceived Eve to eat from the forbidden fruit of the tree of knowledge of good and evil[5]. And in Nehushtan within the book of Numbers: the bronze serpent that Moses lifted in a pole so that the Israelites that were bitten by a snake would recover their health after seeing it[6].
The first interpretations are taken directly from the narrative of Genesis and the narrative of the Nehushtan. The serpent, in the Genesis narrative, represents an external evil, not necessarily Satan, that can tempt man and introduce him to sin, but man has his own free will and responsibility for what he does. And it explains the “enmity” between the serpent and human being, regarding this animal as dangerous and deceiving. In the Nehushtan narrative we find that the serpent has a dual symbolism: punishment and redemption. God punishes the Israelites for complaining in the desert by sending venomous snakes to their camp, but then He commands Moses to lift a bronze serpent to heal the ones bitten by the snakes. God grants redemption through suffering. Something important for Jewish religion is the complete and firm prohibition of idolatry[7], therefore the bronze serpent must be seen as a mean to return to God, or a means of Gods power, but not the source of healing.
Rabbinic and traditional commentaries on the narrative of Genesis interpretate the symbol of the serpent as a source of moral lesson[8], an explanation of human free will and even as a mean God used to test Adam and Eve[9]. Jewish tradition avoids demonizing the serpent of the Genesis narrative or giving it supernatural features, it is just an animal with a cunning nature that God uses to test humanity’s free will[10]. Hellenistic Jewish interpretations take an allegorical view, so the symbol of the serpent is described as the weakness of man, as the pleasure and desires that take man away from virtue. «The serpent is an apt emblem of pleasure, because it crawls on its belly, seeking the lower things[11]». says Philo of Alexandria in his De Opificio Mundi. The Kabbalistic interpretations approach the symbol of the serpent in a more mystical and spiritual understanding. They give the serpent a place in the balance of the cosmos as an essential part of the Sitra Achra (forces of impurity) for its role of chaos and disruption[12]. The Qumran understanding of the serpent it is through serpentine characteristic which they associate with the forces of evil and deceit, and even with the angel of darkness which might be a glimpse to the future Christian association between the serpent and Satan[13].
It seems that the symbol of the serpent is always a mean with which God can prove the free will of man, punish them, give redemption, attract them to himself and ultimately show his will to the Israelites. Therefore, the serpent it is not necessarily evil in itself, but a mere creature that God chooses to use.
Egypt
Egyptian mythology sustains in more than 4000 years of a Kingdom that has risen and fallen through its history[14]. Their pantheist religion has had many stages[15] that have allowed its many gods to evolve and change in the perception of the Egyptian people. For this there are opposite characteristics and meanings for the symbol of the serpent.
There are two main deities that resemble the features and characteristics of the serpent: Apep and Nehebkau. The first one belongs to the ancient Egyptian gods, venerated since the predynastic period. Apep is a humongous serpent that was considered a primordial force of chaos and destruction. It was believed that every night Ra, the Sun god, traveled in his barque under the earth to emerge at the other side and thus giving day and night, but Apep would always try to eat him while he was under the earth. Apep was not worshiped but feared. Each year the priests of Ra would perform the Overthrowing of Apep a ritual to maintain all evil away for another year and help Ra to rise every day[16]. Nehebkau is a more recent god, venerated during the middle and new kingdoms. Originally was seen to play the same role as Apep, later tales said the Nehebkau was subdue by Atum becoming a benign god that guided and protected the soul in the afterlife. He also granted protection against serpents and other venomous animals. He was worshiped as a funerary god and a protective deity. It was believed that later he would assume Ra’s position as king of the two lands: earth and afterlife, assigning to the souls the roles they would assume in the afterlife. This led to the use of his image to represent royalty[17].
Within the cosmic order of Egyptian religion, it is found the dualism that maintains that order. That dualism is well portrayed in these two deities: Apep and Nehebkau. Apep represents chaos and evil, while Ra represents life, peace and bounty, and their eternal conflict maintains the order. Nehebkau represents the middle point between life and afterlife: death and judgment. Thus, maintaining the cosmical balance.
Greeks and Romans
The most famous ancient civilizations and mythologies are the Roman and the Greek. These two have shaped what we know as Western Civilization, with the Roman laws and the Greek philosophies. And likewise, both were shaped by their own and mostly their common and shared myths, legends, and polytheist religion. Greek mythology has its origin way farther in time than the Roman. But both have, mostly, the same story and structure. It started as fictional tales of gods and heroes from single city-states, that later where compiled and presented as the real account for how the universe was made, the origin of life, to explain natural phenomena, and even to teach the values of their societies. The symbol of the serpent was part of that shaping.
Among the Greco-Roman pantheon only one god has a serpent as part of his symbols: Asclepius for the Greeks and Aesculapius for the Romans. He is the son of Apollo and was raised by the centaur Chiron who taught him the art of healing, thus becoming the god of medicine. He is seen always bearing a rod with a single serpent around it. The origin of this symbol is uncertain, but the main theory is that the serpent was seen as an animal that could regain health and beauty through the shade of its skin[18]. Monsters, magical creatures, beasts, and hybrids are also part of the Greco-Roman mythology and some of them resemble a serpent (or serpents). The hydra, the Basiliscus, Medusa, Cetus, Echidna; these are some of the creatures that have serpin features, and all of them are dangerous, destructive, obstacles, untamed and finally trophies of the heroes which killed them. Some others, like Python, represent the protection, or the way to get to the mysterious, prophecies and wisdom[19]. The family and the household were pillars in Greco-Roman societies and thus the rituals and symbols that protected it. Serpents are commonly found depicted as symbols for protection, prosperity, and stability in homely rituals[20]. The characteristic that led to these practices is that the serpent is earth bounded and thus related to fertility.
Multifaceted symbolism is part of Greco-Roman mythology; the diversity of the many peoples that merge to create these civilizations allows it. From the next three civilizations two share that multifaceted symbolism, while the other one has a strong and specific interpretation for the serpent.
Nordics
Norse mythology was shared by the Scandinavian people, localized in today’s Norway Sweden and Denmark[21]. It has its roots centuries before it was recorded during the Viking Era (8th century AC – 11th century AC) around the 10th century BC[22]. Norse mythology originated from the oral traditions passed down century after century. It is quite amazing that this mythology has the symbol of the serpent at all, for this animal was not common in this cold and harsh environment[23]. And not only has its place in it but a very central one. The serpent permeates Norse mythology, mainly in three forms: Jörmungandr the Midgard Serpent, Níðhöggr, and the nickname for the sea battleships.
Jörmungandr is the son of Loki the trickster god and a giant. It was born as a small serpent, but when Odin cast it off to the sea of Midgard (home of humankind) it grew so large that it could surround the earth and bite its own tail. Because of its size and place in the world it was considered an essential part of the world’s environment and thus provoking big changes if disturbed. Odin knew that it was prophesized that Jörmungandr was going to play an important role in the Ragnarök, the end of the world where a battle between the gods of Asgard and all the evil forces of chaos. Jörmungandr was destined to be killed by Thor, the god of thunder, who would die from the venom of Jörmungandr nine steps after killing it. Jörmungandr the World Serpent represents the forces of chaos and destruction that balances with the force of order represented by the gods, in the Ragnarök the forces of chaos win, but are also destroyed allowing that the world can be created again[24]. The second serpent-like creature is Níðhöggr a dragon-like serpent that might have originally resided in one of the nine levels of Niflheim, the realm of the death, were it tormented the oath-breakers and murderers, but later it will reside under the roots of Yggdrasil the World Tree and gnaw at them for they were crushing him[25]. Níðhöggr represented death, decay and torment, while Yggdrasil represented life, order, and bounty, thus showing the balance and battle between life and death. The last symbol of the serpent used in Norse mythology are the sea battleships. These ships were carved with serpent heads at their ends to make them swifter, stronger to travel at the feared sea, and more dangerous against their enemies[26].
The serpent in Norse mythology is a symbol of chaos, evil, death, decay, danger and fear, but it always accompanies its opposite symbols, order, life and bounty. Balance and cycles are the fundamental line or Norse mythology. It might appear that chaos has the final word, but there is no reason for chaos to exist without order, death without life, fear without bounty.
Aztecs and Mayans
Now, crossing the Pacific Ocean, the Mesoamerican civilizations were growing and flourishing. Like the civilizations already covered the Aztec and Mayan civilizations had their own cosmology and mythology that shaped their way of living and seeing the world. Mayan culture is older than the Aztec, having its beginnings as far as 1,500 BC[27]. While the Aztec was founded in the 12th century AC[28]. Both had their most flourishing period during the few last centuries before the conquest and colonization of the Spaniards. As with the other mythologies Aztec and Mayan mythologies have the serpent as an essential part of their weave of tales and traditions. Aztecs and Mayans influenced each other; this reflected in the similarities of their gods and their traits[29]. Quetzalcoatl and Kukulkan are both the Feathered Serpent god, the first one for the Aztecs and la later for the Mayan. Aztecs have some feminine deities that also bear the symbol of the serpent, while the Mayans only have Kukulkan. They all share many characteristics.
The Mayan god Kukulkan for the Yucatec Mayans or Gucumatz for the Guatemalan Mayans is one of the gods that created the world and man[30]. It is believed that he brought the four elements and the cardinal points, thus his close relationship with weather, nature and fertility[31]. His features of a serpent connect him with the earth, his feathers with the sky and his behavior in caves with the underground, thus making him a deity of unity, balance and connection[32]. He was thought of as a vengeful deity, and the Mayan people appeased him with human sacrifices[33]. Quetzalcoatl was seen by the Aztecs as the giver of wisdom and knowledge, for he gave them the calendar and other tools to help them with their agriculture and other sciences[34]. Another Aztec goddess is Cihuacoatl she has a dual representation connecting her with death and fertility, life and destruction, thus making the symbol of the serpent an encompassing symbol of all cycles of the world[35].
For the Aztec and the Mayan, the serpent was a mystery and thus a possible symbol for their main beliefs and religion traditions. Their life was all about their gods and keeping them appease with the human sacrifices, and many of those gods were the serpent ones.
Summary
Now it is evident that the symbol of the serpent has not been always that negative and that it actually was very different from culture to culture. In some cultures, like the Aztec and Mayan, it was so multifaceted that you cannot use a single sentence to describe its symbolism. In others, as for the Jews was not as important, just another creature that does not have a moral or spiritual value, it is just a tool that God used to test man. For others, as for the Egyptians, the symbol evolved through time, from negative, like destruction, to positive, like protection and royalty. To others, like the Nordics, it was actually a negative symbol, one that was in the very essence of the world and would have its main role at the end of it. And for others, like the Romans and Greeks, it was a symbol of health, prophecy and prosperity.
Many of these values and virtues are instill in many cultures and religions, especially does that have these as background, but as now will be addressed, Christianity has the largest and deepest effect in today’s world regarding the symbol of the serpent.
Transformation of the Serpent’s Symbolism in Christian Contexts
Introduction
Jesus was a Jewish that lived 2000 years ago in Israel when it was under the Roman Empire rule. He is the son of God, who became man and died in a cross for the salvation of all humankind. After His resurrection and ascension to Heaven the Apostles were entrusted with the spreading of his Gospel and message of salvation, thus the Roman Catholic Church having its beginnings. Catholicism relays over God’s revelation: the Bible. They adopted the Jewish bible as their Old Testament, and the Gospels and writings of the Apostles as their New Testament. The Bible (God’s revelation to man) is one of the three pillars of Catholic Faith, together with the Magisterium (Church interpretation of the Bible) and Tradition (The piety practices of the Church members).
Catholics interpreted the same texts mentioned in the section referring to the Jewish interpretations of the symbol of the serpent: first the story of the Garden of Eden, telling the sin of Adam and Eve. And second, the Nehushta (the bronze serpent) in the Book of Numbers. Catholics made their interpretations through Jesus and his message.
This chapter will delve in how the symbol of the serpent has been shaped by the early Fathers of the Church (the generation that came after the Apostles) who dedicated themselves to stablish the foundations of Catholic Magisterium (Doctrine). It will also look at how this symbol has affected part of Catholic culture which permeates most of Western Civilization, especially in the Medieval and Renaissance periods. Lastly, it will address the theological implications and doctrinal developments on the symbol of the serpent.
Early Christian Biblical Narratives Interpretations
The Early Christian Church is the period between the first communities founded by the Apostles and the First Council of Nicaea (4th century AC) [36]. After the first generation of the Apostles and their direct disciples came the so-called Fathers of the Church who dedicated themselves to interpretate the Bible against the heresies that were rising in those times. Some of those commentaries on the Sacred scripture were on the biblical narratives of The Garden of Eden and on the Nehushta, thus reinterpreting the symbol of the serpent. There are many Fathers of the Church, but for this section only 3 will be regarded: Justin Martyr, Irenaeus of Lyons and Tertullian.
Justin Martyr was a gentile before his conversion to Christianity, he was born c. 100 AC and grew up in Samaria, todays Palestine’s West Bank, and he died martyr in 165 AC[37]. He was one of the first apologetics, showing to the Roman authorities than Catholics were not a danger for the Empire, but an improvement. One of his survivor writings is Dialogue with Trypho, in which he proves through the Sacred Scriptures that Jesus is the Messiah. In this text he sees the serpent on the Garden of Eden as Satan[38], and every time he speaks about the serpent, he is referring to him and his deceit and cunning ways. Then he explains why God asked Moses to lift the bronze serpent to heal the serpent-bitten Israelites.
Further, the provision made against the serpents that bit Israel was a type and a sign. And the setting of it up was clearly made for the salvation of those that believe that it was this ; namely, that it was intended to proclaim that by Him who was to be crucified death was to come to the serpent, but salvation to them that are bitten by it, and flee for refuge to Him who sent His crucified Son into the world. For the spirit of prophecy speaking by Moses did not teach us to believe on a serpent, since it declares that it was cursed in the beginning by God, and he informs us in Isaiah that it will be slain as an enemy by the great sword, which is Christ[39].
He says that it was a foreshadowing of the crucifixion, and of how Jesus beats and wins over the serpent to give redemption to those who were poisoned by sin introduced by the serpent in the Graden of Eden. Irenaeus of Lyons was born in c.120 AC in Asia Minor and died as bishop of Lyon in c.200 AC[40]. He wrote Against Heresies a treaty against Gnosticism. He uses the term serpent many times in his treaty, and he always uses it to refer to the enemy of the woman and Jesus, the son of the woman.
For the law never hindered them from believing in the Son of God; nay, but it even exhorted them so to do, saying that men can be saved in no other way from the old wound of the serpent than by believing in Him who, in the likeness of sinful flesh, is lifted up from the earth upon the tree of martyrdom, and draws all things to Himself, and vivifies the dead[41].
Here he refers to the serpent as sin and only Jesus can save us from that sin. Another Father is Tertullian. He was born in c.155 in Carthage and died in 220. He was the first to write Christian writings in Latin and thus considered the father of Latin tradition[42]. In On the Resurrection of the Felsh he addresses the symbol of the snake in these terms «…the old serpent, the devil…»[43]. Later in his apologetic text Against Marcion he writes:
Why, once more, did the same Moses, after prohibiting the likeness of everything, set up the golden serpent on the pole; and as it hung there, propose it as an object to be looked at for a cure? Did he not here also intend to show the power of our Lord’s cross, whereby that old serpent the devil was vanquished,—whereby also to every man who was bitten by spiritual serpents, but who yet turned with an eye of faith to it, was proclaimed a cure from the bite of sin, and health for evermore?[44].
He addresses the biblical narrative of the Nehushta and refutes that the serpent in the pole was a prefiguration of the power of Christ on the Cross, defeating the poison of the evil serpent.
In general, the Fathers of the Church took the symbol of the serpent that already existed in the Jewish religious texts, and they made of it the principal image and symbol of Satan, the devil, sin, and death. But these references to the serpent are never alone, they are always in contrast with the image of Jesus in the Cross, Jesus crushing the serpent’s head, and Jesus transforming death and sin into life and redemption. So even though the serpent is a negative symbol it is not absolute, but has a purpose, as a means to greater good. This is the foundation for the rest of Christianity of how they will see the serpent and how they will represent it in their culture.
Medieval and Renaissance Christian Culture
After centuries of evangelization and the work of the Holy Spirit, Medieval and Renaissance Europe lives in a Christian era. This means that culture is mainly imbued in Christian believes, teachings and moral. The serpent also has its place in this Christian culture. Among all the fields of culture (architecture, music, traditions, etc.) this paper will be focused on art and literature.
For Medieval art The Last Judgment Tympanum by Gislebertus will be the example of how the artists in that time used the symbol of the serpent for their moral teaching proposes. In this relief found in Autun Cathedral the serpent can be seen in the section of the condemned around the legs of the souls that are tortured in hell. Here the serpent is use as an instrument of punishment for the condemned souls, so even if it does not directly represent Satan, it represents the consequences he brings over those who fall into his deceptions as Eve did. For literature Dante’s Divine Comedy is an example of how authors in this time used the symbol of the serpent. In Canto 24 of Inferno Dante encounters thieves that are bitten by serpents, and they convert to ashes, but they reform to suffer again[45]. In Canto 25 is a more vivid image of how the nature of the sinner is now corrupted as Dante sees how the souls of the thieves merge with the bodies and nature of the serpents that torment them[46]. Here the serpent is a creature used for torment and a symbol of corruption and punishment after falling into temptation.
A few centuries later the Renaissance surges and even if art and culture are little by little diverging from religion and Christianity the symbol of the serpent can still be found. Michelangelo’s Sistine Chapel Ceiling: The Fall and Expulsion from Eden is an example of the period that enhanced human nature and beauty. In the painting the serpent is handing over the prohibited fruit to Eve and it is represented as half human figure and half serpent symbolizing how cunning as an animal and seductive as a human the serpent was and still is. In literature John Milton’s Lost Paradise is an example of the further development and deeper rooting of the symbol of the serpent as Satan, evil, sin and temptation. In his book he recounts the Fall and a “triumphal entrance” of Satan into hell after what he has done, but then he is deformed into a horrible serpent, thus having for punishment that what he used for the fall of human[47].
These are the pieces of art and literature that lead to today’s way of thinking and the way culture developed. The serpent and its Christian interpretation came along with it. And not only culture developed, but the Church and its liturgy, traditions and doctrine also developed and formed the way the serpent would be seen in it.
Contemporaneous Theological Implications and Doctrinal Developments
The symbol of the serpent is also present in today’s Church and its doctrine and theology. The symbol follows a continuity from the patristic interpretations to the Medieval ones, but with a more accessible language and with a pastoral approach. This paper will look into The Catechism of the Catholic Church, Saint John Paul II and Pope Francis to exemplify how the symbol of the serpent is present in today’s theology and doctrine.
The Catechism of the Catholic Church in number 397 says: «Man, tempted by the devil, let his trust in his Creator die in his heart and, abusing his freedom, disobeyed God’s command. This is what man’s first sin consisted of»[48]. This number is in a part that talks about man’s fall and original sin, and what is interesting is that it says that man was tempted by the devil, it does not slays by the serpent, because it is not necessary, it assumes that they are the same, the devil and the serpent. Mulieris Dignitatem an apostolic letter of Saint John Paul II says: The serpent’s deception brought sin, but the woman’s seed—Christ—crushes its head, restoring dignity to humanity[49]. Here the serpent is present, but in contrast with Christ. The devil, the serpent, is allowed to make his deception only because there is a greater good that can come from that. This is the redemptive power of Christ in the Cross. Pope Francis in his homily on March 31, 2020 speaks about the serpent as the devil, of how the serpent was the symbol of the sin of the Israelites and hoy Moses lift up the bronze serpent to heal them, this being understood as a prophecy, that Jesus on the cross would become sin, he would carry all of our sins to destroy them and bring us redemption[50].
The serpent is now framed in Christ’s passion, death and resurrection, and it does not have the last word, but to the contrary God uses Satan’s own means to bring death and sin to man as Christ symbols for mercy, love and salvation. Just as the serpent brought sin on a beautiful tree, Christ brings forgiveness on an ugly tree.
Summary
After Christ everything changed, the world took a new direction led by the Church He founded over Peter and the Apostles. His Church took the task to make evident the changes and the good news that Christ brought with his passion, death and resurrection. One of these aspects was the symbol of the serpent. The Fathers of the Church gave their interpretation of Scriptures with their exegesis and comments and thus bringing up the first Christian interpretations for the symbol of the serpent and its role in human fall. Then the artist and authors of Medieval and Renaissance times showed their moral views of the serpent and its role of punishment for the condemned souls. And finally, the theologians and Popes teach that the serpent only has a purpose when it is framed within Christ’s passion, death and resurrection, that God con take anything, turn it against itself and be a means for mercy, love and salvation.
Conclusion
The symbol of the serpent has reached the men and societies of today. This symbol has suffered many changes, and this paper has gone through many of them in representative, but not exhaustive research, thus leaving space for personal indagation, further investigation, deeper reflection, and later enrichment. The symbol of the serpent is not a dead and static symbol, but one that can still change, grow and be richer.
Even if today, the symbol of the serpent appears to be mainly negative, the new and better interpretations the Church is giving will lead to a better understanding of the animal itself. The final purpose of this paper is to lead the lector to a better knowledge of the serpent and the role it has in today’s societies. The serpent is a God’s creature and, though its association with Satan, good in itself and therefore it should be regarded with respect.
Bibliography
ALIGHIERI, D., The Divine Comedy: Inferno, Norton & Co., New York 1970.
ALEXANDRIA, P., On the Creation of the World, Harvard University Press, Cambridge 1929.
BABYLONIAN TALMUD, Sanhedrin, Vilna 1866.
CATHOLIC CHURCH, Catechism of the Catholic Church, Libreria Editrice Vaticana, Vatican City 1997.
CHICHENITZA, The Feathered Serpent of Chichen Itza: A Symbol of Mayan and Aztec Power, Web Media, Washington 2024.
DAVIDE, D, Genius, Lares, Penates, and Mani in Pompeii, Web Media, Washington 2020.
DEAD SEA SCROLLS, Community Rule, Brill, Leiden 1997.
ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA, Aztec, Encyclopædia Britannica, Chicago 2025.
——, History of early Christianity, Encyclopædia Britannica, Chicago 2010.
——, Judaism, Encyclopædia Britannica, Chicago 2025.
——, Saint Irenaeus, Encyclopædia Britannica, Chicago 2025.
——, Saint Justin Martyr, Encyclopædia Britannica, Chicago 2010.
——, Scandinavia, Encyclopædia Britannica, Chicago 2025.
——, Tertullian, Encyclopædia Britannica, Chicago 2010.
——, When Did Mayan Civilization Begin?, Encyclopædia Britannica, Chicago 2025.
FRANCIS, POPE, The Prophecy of the Cross, Libreria Editrice Vaticana, Vatican City 2020.
GREEKMYTHOLOGY.COM, Python, Web Media, Washington 2025.
GROENEVELD, E., Norse Mythology, World History, Washington 2018.
HISTORY COOPERATIVE, Asclepius: Greek God of Medicine, Web Media, Washington 2025.
IRENAEUS, I., Against Heresies, T&T Clark, Edinburgh 1885.
- P. II, Mulieris Dignitatem, Libreria Editrice Vaticana, Vatican City 1988.
MARTYR, J., Dialogue with Trypho, S.P.C.K., London 1930.
MILTON, J., Paradise Lost, Norton & Co., New York 2005.
NAIR, N, Apep, Mythlok, Washington 2024.
——, Egyptian Mythology, Mythlok, Washington 2025.
——, Gucumatz, Mythlok, Washington 2024.
——, Kukulkan, Mythlok, Washington 2024.
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC, Snakes: Facts, National Geographic Society, Washington 2025.
PEW RESEARCH CENTER, The Global Religious Landscape, Pew Research Center, Washington 2012.
SUESS, J., Jörmungandr: The Midgard Serpent, The Collector, Washington 2023.
TERTULLIAN, T., Adversus Marcionem, T&T Clark, Edinburgh 1870.
——, On the Resurrection of the Flesh, Patristic Publishing, London 2020.
UNIVERSITY OF MEMPHIS, Timeline of Egyptian History, University of Memphis Press, Memphis 2024.
USCCB, New American Bible Revised Edition, Catholic Book Publishing Corp., Totowa 2011.
WIKIPEDIA, Nehebkau, Wikimedia Foundation, Washington 2025.
WILLIAMSON, J., The Role and Symbolism of Snakes in Norse Mythology, The Viking Herald, Washington 2024.
YITZCHAKI, S., Commentary on Genesis, Feldheim Publishers, Jerusalem 1988.
ZOHAR, Sefer He-Zohar, Soncino Press, London 1933.
[1] Cf. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC, «Snakes: Facts», 2025, in https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/reptiles/facts/snakes-1 (referenced on May 13, 2025)
[2] Cf. Ibidem
[3] Cf. PEW RESEARCH CENTER, «The Global Religious Landscape», 2012, in https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-exec/ (referenced on May 13, 2025)
[4] Cf. ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA, «Judaism», 2025, in https://academic.eb.com/levels/collegiate/article/Judaism/105859 (referenced on May 13, 2025)
[5] Cf. Genesis 1-6
[6] Cf. Numbers 4-9
[7] Cf. Exodus 3-6
[8] Cf. BABYLONIAN TALMUD, Sanhedrin, Vilna 1866, 59b.
[9] Cf. MIDRASH RABBAH, Genesis Rabbah, Soncino Press, London 1939, 19:1-3.
[10] Cf. S. YITZCHAKI, Commentary on Genesis, Feldheim Publishers, Jerusalem 1988, 3:1.
[11] P. ALEXANDRIA, On the Creation of the World, Harvard University Press, Cambridge 1929, 129–131 (sections 157–165).
[12] Cf. ZOHAR, Sefer He-Zohar, Soncino Press, London 1933, I:52a, I:138b.
[13] Cf. DEAD SEA SCROLLS, Community Rule, Brill, Leiden 1997, 1QS.
[14] Cf. NITTEN NAIR, «Egyptian Mythology», 2025, in https://mythlok.com/world-mythologies/african/north-african-mythology/egyptian/ (referenced on May 13, 2025)
[15] UNIVERSITY OF MEMPHIS, «Timeline of Egyptian History», 2024, in https://www.memphis.edu/egypt/resources/timeline.php (referenced on May 13, 2025)
[16] Cf. NITTEN NAIR, «Apep», 2024, in https://mythlok.com/apep/ (referenced on May 13, 2025)
[17] WIKIPEDIA, «Nehebkau», 2025, in https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nehebkau (referenced on May 13, 2025)
[18] Cf. HISTORY COOPERATIVE, «Asclepius: Greek God of Medicine», 2025, in https://historycooperative.org/asclepius-greek-god-of-medicine/ (referenced on May 13, 2025)
[19] Cf. GREEKMYTHOLOGY.COM, «Python», 2025, in https://www.greekmythology.com/Myths/Creatures/Python/python.html (referenced on May 13, 2025)
[20] Cf. DARIO DAVIDE, «Genius, Lares, Penates, and Mani in Pompeii», 2020, in https://dariodavide.com/2020/02/02/genius-lares-penates-and-mani-in-pompeii/ (referenced on May 13, 2025)
[21] Cf. ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA, «Scandinavia», 2025, in https://www.britannica.com/place/Scandinavia (referenced on May 14, 2025)
[22] Cf. E. GROENEVELD, «Norse Mythology», 2018, in https://www.worldhistory.org/Norse_Mythology/ (referenced on May 14, 2025)
[23] Cf. J. WILLIAMSON, «The Role and Symbolism of Snakes in Norse Mythology», 2024, in https://thevikingherald.com/article/the-role-and-symbolism-of-snakes-in-norse-mythology/1051 (referenced on May 14, 2025)
[24] Cf. J. SUESS, «Jörmungandr: The Midgard Serpent», 2023, in https://www.thecollector.com/jormungandr-midgard-serpent/ (referenced on May 14, 2025)
[25] Cf. J. WILLIAMSON, «The Role and Symbolism of Snakes in Norse Mythology», 2024, in https://thevikingherald.com/article/the-role-and-symbolism-of-snakes-in-norse-mythology/1051 (referenced on May 14, 2025)
[26] Cf. Ibidem
[27] Cf. ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA, «When Did Mayan Civilization Begin? », 2025, in https://www.britannica.com/question/When-did-Mayan-civilization-begin (referenced on May 13, 2025)
[28] Cf. ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA, «Aztec», 2025, in https://www.britannica.com/topic/Aztec (referenced on May 13, 2025)
[29] Cf. CHICHENITZA, «The Feathered Serpent of Chichen Itza: A Symbol of Mayan and Aztec Power», 2024, in https://www.chichenitza.com/blog/the-feathered-serpent-of-chichen-itza-a-symbol-of-mayan-and-aztec-power (referenced on May 13, 2025)
[30] Cf. NITTEN NAIR, «Gucumatz», 2024, in https://mythlok.com/gucumatz/ (referenced on May 13, 2025)
[31] Cf. NITTEN NAIR, «Kukulkan», 2024, in https://mythlok.com/kukulkan/ (referenced on May 13, 2025)
[32] Cf. NITTEN NAIR, «Gucumatz», 2024, in https://mythlok.com/gucumatz/ (referenced on May 13, 2025)
[33] Cf. NITTEN NAIR, «Kukulkan», 2024, in https://mythlok.com/kukulkan/ (referenced on May 13, 2025)
[34] Cf. NITTEN NAIR, «Kukulkan», 2024, in https://mythlok.com/quetzalcoatl/ (referenced on May 13, 2025)
[35] Cf. NITTEN NAIR, «Kukulkan», 2024, in https://mythlok.com/cihuacotl/ (referenced on May 13, 2025)
[36] Cf. ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, «History of early Christianity», 2010, https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-early-Christianity (referenced on May 13, 2025).
[37] Cf. ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, «Saint Justin Martyr», 2010, https://www.britannica.com/summary/Saint-Justin-Martyr (referenced on May 14, 2025).
[38] Cf. J. MARTYR, Dialogue with Trypho, S.P.C.K., London 1930, 168.
[39] J. MARTYR, Dialogue with Trypho, S.P.C.K., London 1930, 194.
[40]Cf. ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA, «Saint Irenaeus», 2025, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Irenaeus (referenced on May 13, 2025).
[41] I. IRENAEUS, Against Heresies, trans. A. Roberts and W. Rambaut, T&T Clark, Edinburgh 1885, IV, 2, 7.
[42] Cf. ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA, «Tertullian», 2010, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Tertullian (referenced on May 14, 2025).
[43] T. TERTULLIAN, On the Resurrection of the Flesh, Patristic Publishing, London 2020, 28.
[44] T. TERTULLIAN, Adversus Marcionem, trans. P. Holmes, T&T Clark, Edinburgh 1870, II, 22.
[45] Cf. D. ALIGHIERI, The Divine Comedy: Inferno, trans. J. Ciardi, Norton & Co., New York 1970, XXIV, 97-105.
[46] Cf. Ibid, 49-78.
[47] Cf. J. MILTON, Paradise Lost, ed. G. Teskey, Norton & Co., New York 2005, X, 504-547.
[48] CATHOLIC CHURCH, Catechism of the Catholic Church, Libreria Editrice Vaticana, Vatican City 1997, § 397.
[49] Cf. J. P. II, Mulieris Dignitatem, Vatican City 1988,11,30.
[50] POPE FRANCIS, «The Prophecy of the Cross», 2020, in https://www.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/cotidie/2020/documents/papa-francesco-cotidie_20200331_laprofezia-sullacroce.html (referenced on May 14, 2025).
