Introduction
Why do we have to study history? It has been said that history is «magistra vitae»[1], however, is this the only reason to study history? Has history taught us something after centuries of war, famine, and plague? The answer to this question is actually more straightforward than one might believe. Humans are historical beings; they must know who they are, and where they came from, to understand their current situation and formulate a view of history based on one or more traditions.
On the one hand, some could reduce history to the mere study and collection of past events. Even if this approach is not mistaken, it is nevertheless incomplete. As a historical being, the human person is deeply tied to the events, ideas, beliefs, and revolutions that shaped the world. Indeed, studying history helps the individual to understand his origins, make sense of his present, and, eventually, chart his future. In this way, the person will be able to position himself correctly with one of the views of the grand narrative of time.
Nevertheless, it is crucial to mention that while there is only one history, it has several different views. This capstone thesis seeks to explore this idea by comparing two views of history. On the one hand, I will offer Yuval Noah Harari’s view, presented in his seminal works: Sapiens: a Brief History of Humankind (2015); and Homo Deus: a Brief History of Tomorrow (2017). On the other hand, I will present Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger’s (Pope Benedict XVI’s) view, taken from two of his pivotal works, The Theology of History in Saint Bonaventure (1957) and Introduction to Christianity (1968).
It is imperative to mention that different schools of thought, traditions, beliefs, and experiences influenced both authors. The goal is not to declare one view right or wrong, but to appreciate both perspectives. As a matter of fact, one can gain a richer understanding of the current historical context, and the choices that one faces, by examining how these thinkers interpret history. «At the end, all historians are the victims of their sources»[2].
So, yet again, why do we have to study history? By following these views, the reader will notice that Harari and Ratzinger have different reasons and answers. For Harari, on the one hand, «we study history no [sic] to know the future but to widen our horizons, to understand that our present situation is neither natural nor inevitable, and that we consequently have many more possibilities before us than we imagine»[3]. If the reader looks deeper into this view, he will find that history choices are not made for the good of humankind, or in Harari’s words, «there is absolutely no proof that human well-being inevitably improves as history rolls along. There is no proof that cultures that are beneficial to humans must inexorably succeed and spread, while less beneficial cultures disappear»[4].
On the other hand, Cardinal Ratzinger argues that «Church and Christianity itself exist on account of history»[5]. In this manner, by embracing Ratzinger’s perspective of history that is rooted in a Christian standpoint, the reader will discern the unique and indelible stamp of God upon the history of humanity; even if it has moments of sorrow, anguish, and evil. These lenses present the individual as the starting point of the narrative, arriving at the consummation of history’s longing: God.
The study of history is essential to comprehend humankind and its experience, as it reveals the events, ideologies, and beliefs that have shaped civilizations. «History, is not a concatenation of blind and oppressive chance happenings. Rather, it is illuminated by the same divine order which is the unifying law of all reality»[6]. Furthermore, the authors were not only chosen for their intellectual prominence or their fame but also for their capacity to fascinate and challenge my own critical thinking. Their different views of history have definitely enriched my ability to discern valuable insights and set aside elements that may diverge from orthodox perspectives.
Chapter I
Yuval Noah Harari
«Accordingly, the central religious revolution of modernity was not losing faith in God; rather, it was gaining faith in humanity. It took centuries of hard work»[7].
1.1 Introduction
For this first chapter, I will delve into Yuval Noah Harari’s life, work, and legacy, focusing my research on his seminal books Sapiens (2015) and Homo Deus (2017). Firstly, this chapter presents his biography with the purpose of illuminating the intellectual and personal currents that shaped the worldview of this historian. In the second section, I will analyze his view of history as articulated in the books already mentioned, where Harari reframes human development as a complex blend of collective myths and technological discoveries. Finally, in the last part, I will offer Harari’s proposal about where history is going.
It is important to remember the criteria that Yuval’s narrative distills. It is a provocative approach to history that could be seen as a paradox, inviting the reader to reconsider and challenge humanity’s place in the current society.
1.2 Biography of the Author
Knowing about his life, one might discover a man shaped by both intellect and the circumstances of his time. Born on February 24, 1976, in Kiryat Ata – a small industrial town in Israel – Harari grew up in a secular Jewish family. His parents were descendants from Bukovia and Poland. His father, Sholomo Harari, was a state-employed armament’s engineer, whereas his mother, Pnina, worked as an office administrator. According to an interview for the New York 100, Hariri taught himself to read at the age of three years old[8]. Formally speaking, his parents were not academic. However, they nurtured his curiosity from an early age. Eventually, this curiosity led him to begin his studies at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem at age seventeen. In this place, he studied world, medieval, and military history, important themes and subjects that would later shape and define his scholarly career.
In 1998, he began to study at the prestigious University of Oxford, where he earned his PhD in 2002 with a dissertation on Renaissance military history[9]. This period coincided with the rise of the digital era and the so-called dot-com boom. This technological revolution later became a central theme in his work and publications. Harari returned to Jerusalem, where he taught at his beloved alma mater, the Hebrew University, captivating his pupils with his peculiar ability to present different historical narratives. Harari focused his early career against the backdrop of a world wrestling with the fast increase of globalization, the traumatic aftermath of 9/11, and new scientific discoveries. Nevertheless, he remained as an unknown until 2014.
In 2014, Harari reached the clouds of success and burst onto the global stage with Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind, a work that traced human history differently from the Stone Age to the present. Selling over twenty-five million copies in 65 languages[10], it has become a cultural phenomenon. Public figures such as Barack Obama and Bill Gates recommended this book. The book emerged when there was growing unease about humanity’s direction, where factors such as climate change, inequality, and the birth of artificial intelligence were increasingly part of people’s expectations. This was the perfect breeding ground for the subsequent triumph of Harari’s Homo Deus: A Brief History of Tomorrow, published in 2016. This work was a chilling exploration of what lies ahead as technology threatens to redefine the human condition. Two years later, Harari wrote 21 Lessons for the 21st Century, where the author turned his gaze to challenges in the current world. Not a small number of people consider Harari one of the world’s most influential thinkers of this early part of the century.
He has been engaged in public dialogues with figures like Facebook’s CEO, Mark Zuckerberg, Emmanuel Macron, and Angela Merkel, discussing the future of society in an age where the dominion of technology, algorithms, and data is growing more and more. In 2019, alongside with his husband, Itzik Yahav, he co-founded Sapienship. This social impact company is aimed at steering public discourse towards the challenges that humanity now faces and will face in the future. This Institute was shaped and developed based on the populist upheavals in recent years, the COVID-19 pandemic, and the current tensions and conflicts in Eastern Europe and the Near East[11].
Finally, Harari’s personal life is a quite a contrast in comparison to his public fame. For instance, he is a vegan and a daily meditator. He currently resides in Israel with his husband, Yahav. Harari often retreats from the spotlight and the stage to reflect and write. Finally, it is essential to remember that Harari is someone who is still alive; therefore, his personal history is written every day.
1.3 Harari’s View of History
In this section, I will examine Harari’s interpretation of human history as a process driven by collective myths and technological advancements. The primary goal is to explain how Harari reframes historical development through three pivotal revolutions and to assess their implications for the human condition. To this end, my analysis is structured as follows: first, I will explore his notions of the Cognitive Revolution, which enabled flexible cooperation through language and fiction. Second, I will address the Agricultural Revolution, which established universal orders of money, empire, and religion. Finally, I will examine the so-called Scientific Revolution, which shifted humanity’s focus to ignorance and technological power.
1.3.1 The Three Revolutions as Historical Pillars
- The Cognitive Revolution
The Cognitive Revolution (circa 70, 000 years ago) is the moment when Homo sapiens began forming more complex socio-economic structures that are known as «cultures». Harari asserts that «the subsequent development of these human cultures is called history»[12], emphasizing that this revolution enabled Homo sapiens to develop a more complex culture, languages, and, especially, the ability to cooperate flexibly in large numbers; one characteristic that distinguishes humans from other species. In other words, «Sapiens can cooperate in extremely flexible ways with countless numbers of strangers. That’s why Sapiens rule the world, whereas ants eat our leftovers and chimps are locked up in zoos and research laboratories»[13].
Nevertheless, he questions what was the process or the key point, that Homo sapiens managed to cross from being a hunter and a gatherer of food to create complex linguistic, social, economic, and political systems that will rule the world in the upcoming centuries? According to the author, «the secret was probably the appearance of fiction. Large numbers of strangers can cooperate successfully by believing in common myths»[14]. Indeed, cooperation between human beings is possible because of the myths that exist in the so-called people’s collective imagination. This explains, for instance, how two Catholics from different countries, languages, and cultural backgrounds believe and agree that Jesus became man in order to redeem humankind. Harari says that one key to comprehending the history of humankind is to look for the patterns created by the so effective myths that convince millions of people. He argues that whether through myths about gods, the supremacy of science, the notion of a specific race destined to rule, or the ideals of freedom and democracy, human history is rich with powerful narratives. These myths unite millions of strangers, enabling them to collaborate toward shared objectives.
- The Agricultural Revolution
The Agricultural Revolution (circa 12,000 years ago) was the human transition from gathering and nomadic foragers to a settled and more organized group of farmers. Eventually, this event led to the domestication of animals; definitely a seminal watershed in human history. Without any doubt, several scholars proclaimed that the Agricultural Revolution was a great leap forward for humanity. Evolution gradually produced ever more intelligent people[15]. After some time, people became so smart that they were able to decipher nature’s secrets. However, Harari’s point of view is different. According to him:
The tale [of the Agricultural Revolution] is a fantasy. There is no evidence that people became more intelligent with time. Foragers knew the secrets of nature long before the Agricultural Revolution, since their survival depend on an intimate knowledge of the animals hunted and the plants they gathered[16].
Nonetheless, the complex relationship of cooperation between different individuals developed uniquely. For the Chronicler of Sapiens[17] the pivotal point of the Agricultural Revolution was the development of the capability to create myths, imagined orders, and narratives left by human biological inheritance. In consequence, the Agricultural Revolution gave birth to three unifying universal orders: monetary, imperial, and religious.
Regarding monetary order, many scholars and thinkers consider money to be the root of evil. However, Harari reckons that «money is thus a universal medium of exchange that enables people to convert almost everything into almost anything else»[18]. Money can create differences, but it unifies complex groups of people with different beliefs because «money asks us to believe that ‘other people believe in something’»[19].
Regarding imperial order, Harari argues that an empire is a historical factor capable of unifying distinct groups of people within flexible borders[20]. More than a military conquest that is founded on bloodshed, the imperial order paradoxically created harmony from chaos, fostering an incredible development in human history.
Finally, it was the religious order that ordained human laws to an absolute principle and supreme authority. Religion creates, according to Harari, a dualist view to explain the evil in the world. Historically speaking, religion has played an intrinsic role in the narrative of humankind, where two stages can be pointed out: the theist and humanist stages. I will explain later these two stages.
- The Scientific Revolution
The Scientific Revolution (circa 500 years ago) was more than a period of new scientific discoveries; according to Harari, it was the discovery of ignorance. «The Scientific Revolution has not been a revolution of knowledge. It has been above all a revolution of ignorance. The great discovery that launched the Scientific Revolution was the discovery that humans do not know the answers to their most important questions»[21].
This movement has three main characteristics. First is the willingness of human beings to admit ignorance. Secondly, there is a centrality of observation and mathematics. Thirdly, acquiring new powers. This means using new scientific theories to develop new technology. In this way, history swayed its educational core, rooted in grammar, rhetoric, and theology, for an era where the students are motivated, or forced, to study mathematics.
Coming back briefly to the two stages of religious order, the theist stage is characterized by the pivotal stamp of God in the history of humankind. Remarkable instances include the rich contributions of religions such as Christianity, Judaism, and Islam. However, with the passing of the centuries, humanity shifted from a religious order centered on God to the era of humanism. As the name indicates, the individual became the center of this new order that rules the world until our days. In Homo Deus: A Brief History of Tomorrow, Harari extends this analysis, suggesting that the scientific pursuit of immortality, happiness, and divinity may redefine humanity itself, helping Homo sapiens to become Homo Deus[22].
1.3.2 Myths, Meaning, and the Human Condition
A crucial point to understand Harari’s view is that history itself lies in the so-called «web of stories» created by humankind. Indeed, «humans think they make history, but history actually revolves around the web of stories»[23]. These realities, understood as gods, nations, and money, exist in the collective imagination, granting to Homo sapiens a unique power to organize complex societies. As a matter of fact, Harari argues that «much of history around this question: how does one convince millions of people to believe particular stories?»[24]. From this perspective, Harari underscores both the fragility and dynamism of human constructs, as seen in the rapid decline of particular ideologies or empires throughout history. For instance, the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 is a good example of this mentioned fragility.
Nevertheless, Harari’s view also struggles with the implications of the three revolutions. On the one hand, these movements have elevated humanity’s material conditions. For instance, humanity has overcome famine, plague, and war[25]. However, the three revolutions have not guaranteed happiness or meaning to human life. As he says in Homo Deus, «material achievements alone will not satisfy us for long»[26]. Moreover, the Scientific Revolution legacy opens more questions than it answers. In the end, «Homo sapiens will disappear, human history will come to an end, and a completely new kind of process will begin»[27].
1.4 Where is History Going?
In this section, I will analyze Yuval Noah Harari’s perspective on the future trajectory of history based on Homo Deus: A Brief History of Tomorrow. The objective is to understand his prediction of humanity’s next agenda: pursuing immortality, happiness, and divinity through biotechnology and artificial intelligence, and to evaluate its implications for human identity and fulfillment. This section is divided into two parts: first, Harari’s vision of a radical redefinition of humanity, where Homo sapiens evolve into Homo Deus. Second is his critique of this trajectory, where Harari questions whether technological progress ensures happiness or meaning.
Where is history going? What is the next step for human beings? Basically, in Homo Deus, Harari presents a brief history of tomorrow. In this book, he presents the new human agenda, arguing that Homo sapiens have already overcome the greatest foes of humanity: war, plague, and famine. Therefore, what is the next step for humanity’s ambition? He writes, «humanity’s next targets are likely to be immortality, happiness and divinity»[28]. This is the next step; Homo sapiens are going to get god-like powers that help them to be a Homo Deus.
Indeed, this shift is extremely ambitious. According to Harari, people will escape to die in a couple of years, meaning that human beings will not die if they do not want to. Human beings will reinvent their bodies and minds with the help of biotechnology and artificial intelligence, which will enable them to know human beings better than they know themselves. Clearly, history, for Yuval Noah Harari, is moving to a radical redefinition of what it means to be human.
However, while Harari recognizes that human beings will soon be able to become almost superhuman, he poses the question of whether human beings will be happier. As a matter of fact, «it is far from obvious that contemporary people are significantly more satisfied than their ancestors»[29]. Nevertheless, material gains do not automatically translate to fulfillment. In fact, he warns, «attaining positive happiness may be far more difficult than abolishing downright suffering»[30]. Indeed, human beings paradoxically crave more than comfort; they seek meaning, which technology alone cannot provide.
No matter if you score the winning goal in the World Cup Final, pleasant sensations fade, and they do not guarantee eternal happiness. History, then, is not marching toward a physical rest but fighting with an eternal existential challenge. Homo sapiens want to upgrade themselves into gods, but they are forgetting their essence; the essence of being human with emotional conflicts and imperfections, but in the end, humans. Harari writes that this tension will shape the future, where the humanist creed that has ruled history for centuries will come to an end to make way for the rise of the era of algorithms.
In conclusion, history’s next chapter belongs not to human beings but to the systems they have unleashed. If humanity’s past was to overcome limits, its future will be about redefining them. In other words, the journey ahead will be unlike anything humanity has ever known, whether ascending to supposed divinity or surrendering to algorithms.
Chapter 2
Joseph Ratzinger
«It is above all at times of greatest crisis in human history that we find men concerned with the theology and the philosophy of history»[31].
2.1 Introduction
For this second chapter, I will delve into Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger’s life, work, and legacy, focusing my research on his seminal books Theology of History in Saint Bonaventure (1957) and Introduction to Christianity (1968). Firstly, this chapter presents his biography with the purpose of illuminating the intellectual and personal currents that shaped the worldview of this thinker. In the second section, I will analyze Ratzinger’s view of history as articulated in the books already mentioned, where he interprets human history and development through the lens of divine revelation and the interplay between faith and reason. Finally, the concluding section will explore his perspective on the trajectory of history in the upcoming future. It is essential to notice that Ratzinger’s view of history is presented with a profound theological depth and philosophical inquiry in order to invite the readers to reflect critically on humanity’s spiritual and moral orientation within the modern world.
2.2 Biography of the Author
For twenty-three years, Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger worked closely with Pope St. John Paul II. However, his life remained something of a mystery for many people. As Prefect of the Congregation of the Doctrine of the Faith, he earned a reputation as a steadfast guardian of Church orthodoxy, standing firm against the threatening ideas of Marxism, heresy, and errors creeping into the Catholic faith.
Looking at the key moments of his life, Ratzinger came from a humble family. His ancestors were farmers from Lower Bavaria. Joseph, the youngest of three siblings, was born on Holy Saturday, April 16, 1927, in Marktl, Germany[32]. The next day, Easter Sunday, he was baptized with the freshly blessed water. This moment left a deep mark on his soul and memory. In his memoirs, he asserts, «to be the first person baptized with the new water was seen as a significant act of Providence»[33].
His was a hard life. As a young boy, he faced Nazism, war, and poverty. At just twelve years old, encouraged by his parish priest, he entered the seminary in 1939, following in his older brother’s footsteps. This was the same year that the Second World War began. Soon after, the Nazi regime forcibly drafted teenagers, including the young Joseph, into its ranks. By May 1945, he deserted the army, only to be captured and held briefly in a prisoner-of-war camp. A month later, he was free to return home and to the seminary. At Freising, he studied philosophy and theology. In 1951, he was ordained a priest. Two years later, he completed his doctoral dissertation in St. Augustine, sparking a lifelong devotion to the saint from Hippo. He also grew close to Saint Benedict of Nursia, the patron of monasticism and Europe. To further his academic career and qualify for a professorship at Freising College, he completed his habilitation[34] thesis, The Theology of History in Saint Bonaventure, in 1957.
Ratzinger rose rapidly to prominence as a brilliant and outstanding theologian during the sessions of the Second Vatican Council. He was a beloved professor at the prestigious universities of Bonn, Münster, Tübingen, and Regensburg, where he witnessed some of the Church’s struggles in the post-conciliar years. In 1977, Pope Paul VI named him Archbishop and Cardinal of Munich. There, he participated in the conclaves that elected John Paul I and John Paul II. This latter one soon called him to Rome. Over the next twenty-three years in the Eternal City, Cardinal Ratzinger balanced his duties in the Roman Curia with public lectures and moments of leisure. His deepest wish was to retire and write theological texts. Nevertheless, God had other plans for him. After Pope John Paul II’s death in April 2005, Ratzinger was chosen as his successor, becoming Pope Benedict XVI.
As Pope, Benedict XVI made profound contributions to theology through his writings. He, as a co-worker of the truth[35], defended the truth against the tide of secularism, modernism, and relativism, always fearless in his mission as shepherd and St. Peter’s successor. He often urged others to «pray for me, that I may not flee for fear of the wolves»[36]; a plea born from the countless criticisms and challenges he faced, both from within the Church and beyond. Yet his pontificate was not without shadows. He confronted priestly abuse scandals, corruption within the Vatican itself, and even betrayal when Paolo Gabriele, his butler, leaked personal documents to the press. These burdens, combined with the physical demands of his role, led him to a historic decision. On February 28, 2013, Pope Benedict XVI became the first pope in centuries to voluntarily resign, stepping away to live quietly in prayer and reflection. Benedict XVI passed away on December 31, 2022.
Even though he is gone, the theological legacy he left behind in his works ensures his voice will echo through history and time. His life, marked by Nazism in his youth, his rise as a professor and Vatican II theologian, and his journey to cardinal and pope, reveals a man wholly absorbed by God. People first praised him as a progressive theologian. Later, they created an obscure and sinister image of him, calling him the Inquisitor, God’s Rotwailler, the Panzer Cardinall. However, he always introduced himself simply as «a humble worker in the vineyard of the Lord»[37].
2.3 Ratzinger’s View of History
In this section, the purpose is to articulate how Ratzinger views history as a purposeful, Christ-centered narrative rather than a random sequence of events. The analysis is organized into three subsections: first, I will present the providential structure of history, where Christ serves as the axis uniting creation and redemption. Second, there is a tension between tradition and progress, situating Ratzinger’s critique within modern intellectual shifts. Finally, the roles of freedom and love as structural elements and their significance in history.
Joseph Ratzinger offers a profound view of history marked by the intervention of the divine purpose, human freedom, and the centrality of Christ. Both in his professorship habilitation in Saint Bonaventure (1957) and Introduction to Christianity (1968), he presents history not as a mere succession of events or a game of chance, but as a process where God leads human beings toward a meaningful and transformative purpose. His perspective is deeply rooted in Christian theology. His view challenges secular and pagan conceptions of time, proposing a linear trajectory characterized by the tremendous event of Christ’s incarnation; a moment that redefines history’s meaning and direction.
2.3.1 The Providential Structure of History
Ratzinger presents his view of history by rejecting the randomness and cyclicality of events influenced by pagan and ancient thought. He asserts that «history is not a concatenation of blind and oppressive chance happenings. Rather, it is illuminated by the same divine order which is the unifying law of all reality»[38]. Practically speaking, Ratzinger encapsulates his conviction that history possesses a rational structure that one can discern through the correct theological reflection and exegesis of Holy Scripture. Ratzinger uses Saint Bonaventure’s Hexameron in order to emphasize that the theologian cannot abstract from history when he interprets Scripture: «the exegesis of Scripture becomes a theology of history; the clarification of the past leads to prophecy concerning the future»[39]. Therefore, history becomes an intrinsic dynamic of revelation and anticipation. By comprehending God’s historical interventions, one can better anticipate the trajectory of divine purpose, aligning one’s perspective with God’s plan.
A central figure in Ratzinger’s understanding of history is Jesus Christ, whom the German theologian identified as the «axis of world history and the center of time»[40]. In his Theology of History in Saint Bonaventure (1957), he disagrees with Joachim of Fiore (1135 – 1202)[41], who prioritized the progression toward a third age of the Spirit. In contrast, Ratzinger, through Bonaventure, highlights Christ’s role as the definitive turning point: «Christ is the center and the turning-point of history. Christ is the center of all»[42]. This Christocentric perspective distinguishes Ratzinger’s theology from both secular historicism and earlier Christian eschatologies that viewed Christ merely as the beginning of the end, rather than the heart of a historical process of redemption[43]. Hence, history is bifurcated into two corresponding parts for Ratzinger: egressus (exitus from God) and regressus (return to God), with, again, Christ standing as «the turning-point of these movements and as the center who both divides and unites»[44]. This duality imbues history with hope, meaning, and purpose, where humanity has a journey to fulfill, from creation to consummation.
2.3.2 The Tension Between Tradition and Progress
Introduction to Christianity was originally published in 1968, based on a series of lectures delivered by Ratzinger at the University of Tübingen in 1967. Basically, the text focuses on explaining the Christian faith through the Apostles’ Creed. This book achieved significant recognition in academic and intellectual circles because of Ratzinger’s ability to balance and harmonize his analytical depth with accessible and pedagogical exposition. It was translated into different languages. Here, Ratzinger extends his view of history by situating it within the modern intellectual context, where history struggles with the shift from tradition to progress. He wisely observes, «today precisely the opposite feeling prevails: tradition appears as what has been laid aside, the merely out-of-date, whereas progress is regarded as the real promise of life»[45].
This cultural shift toward the future, driven by the so-called Enlightenment notions of truth as Verum quia factum (truth is what is made, as articulated by Giambattista Vico) and later Verum quia faciendum (truth is what must be done, emphasizing actionable change), contrasts sharply with the Christian understanding of history rooted in divine truth[46]. Ratzinger critiques this reduction of history to mere human achievement or technological mastery. He argues that this reduction loses the deeper meaning presented in the Christian view of history, which is illuminated by divine order and purpose.
History stems not from human constructs alone but from its orientation toward God. In other words, «Christian belief is essentially centred [sic] on history; statements of the Bible are not metaphysical but factual in character»[47]. Nevertheless, Ratzinger warns against overemphasizing historical verification at the expense of faith. He suggests that «the full truth of history eludes documentary verification just as much as the truth escapes the experimental approach»[48]. Therefore, history is, yes, accessible to human inquiry, but it finds its ultimate coherence in the divine logos.
2.3.3 Freedom, Love, and the Structure of History
A distinctive characteristic of Ratzinger’s view of history is its integration of freedom and love as pivotal elements in history. In Introduction to Christianity (1968), he says, «for Christianity, the explanation of reality as a whole is not an all-embracing consciousness or one single materiality; on the contrary, [it] creates freedom, thus making freedom a structural form of all being»[49]. This freedom that Ratzinger mentions introduces incalculability into history because «the world can never… be completely reduced to mathematical logic»[50], and with it, the possibility of evil. Nonetheless, Ratzinger also sees this risk as intrinsic to a world defined by love: «a world created and willed on the risk of freedom and love is no longer just mathematics. As the arena of love it is also the playground of freedom»[51].
Therefore, history is not a deterministic mechanism but a drama of human and divine interaction, where the individual holds ultimate significance: «the person, the unique and unrepeatable, is at the same time the ultimate and highest thing»[52]. This emphasis on the individual culminates in Ratzinger’s Christology. He writes, «the individual is the salvation of the whole, and the whole receives its salvation only from the individual who truly is it»[53]. And who is this individual? Jesus Christ. He is the singular historical figure who overcomes the bondage of sin, redirecting history itself toward a renewal, a redemption. Thus, Ratzinger’s view harmonizes the collective and personal, asserting that «because Christianity wants history as a whole its challenge is directed fundamentally at the individual»[54].
2.4 Where is History Going?
In this section, the aim is to present Ratzinger’s view of history’s trajectory as a movement toward salvation and the realization of God’s kingdom, rooted in Christian hope. This section of the work has two parts: first, Ratzinger’s concept of history as a process of egressus (exitus from God) and regressus (return to God). Second, his vision of the future as a unification of nature and spirit.
As I mentioned before, Ratzinger divides history into two movements: egressus and regressus. Humanity has come from God, fulfilling the egressus part. Now, it is the moment of regressus. Then, where does history lead according to Ratzinger? His answer is both eschatological and historical, rooted in the Christian hope of salvation articulated in Saint Bonaventure’s theology. In his habilitation, Ratzinger explains: «the real point of Bonaventure’s new view of history is not the understanding of the past, but the prophecy about that which is to come… But a knowledge of the past is necessary for the grasp of the future»[55]. This future is not an abstract utopian idea but a so-called time of salvation within history, a state of full redemption yet to be achieved within history[56].
In addition, in Introduction to Christianity, Ratzinger refines his trajectory of history, saying that «Christian faith says that in Christ the salvation of man is accomplished, that in him the true future of mankind has irrevocably begun and thus, although remaining future, is yet also perfect, a part of our present»[57]. In such a way, history is moving towards the final unification of the reality of spirit, a process already prefigured in Christ’s return and the end of the world[58]. However, this end is not merely a technological triumph but a unification of nature and spirit. History’s final destination, according to Ratzinger, is the realization of God’s kingdom, where freedom and love triumph over evil, and an individual’s salvation contributes to the renewal of the whole.
Conclusion
Reading this comparative analysis of Yuval Noah Harari’s and Joseph Ratzinger’s views of history could result in concluding that there are marked differences between these two thinkers. On the one hand, Harari’s view of history is completely secular, rooted in the idea of scientificism, humanism, and history as a result of mere collective myths. On the contrary, Ratzinger’s view is based on divine purpose. However, my analysis has identified an unexpected convergence in certain aspects of both scholars’ perspectives. Firstly, both authors agree on positioning the human person as a historical being shaped by belief and oriented toward a narrative that transcends the individual. Secondly, both recognize that history is moved by belief, whether grounded in imagined and collective myths or divine truth. On the one hand, Harari says that humanity’s dominance stems from its ability to create intersubjective realities. In his own words, «no other animal can stand up to us, not because they lack a soul or a mind, but because they lack the necessary imagination»[59]. On the other hand, Ratzinger asserts that «Scriptures has grown in a historical way. Only he who knows its history knows its meaning. History is a structural element of Scripture’s intelligible form»[60].
Their views of the future not only try to predict future scenarios, but also try to answer existential questions within the human heart. The future, for Harari, envisions a shift toward Homo Deus, where technology will possibly redefine humanity. In consequence, Harari says, «the rise of AI and biotechnology will certainly transform the world, but it does not mandate a single deterministic outcome»[61]. Ratzinger, in contrast, sees history culminating in God’s kingdom, writing:
Now the ‘end of the world’ in which the Christian believes is certainly something quite different from the total victory of technology. But the welding together of nature and spirit which occurs in it enables us to grasp in a new way how to reality of belief in the return of Christ is to be conceived: as faith in the final unification of reality by spirit or mind[62].
Mankind is involved in hazardous endeavors to find answers to the existential questions within his heart. Man looks for meaning in a society that seems to be hopeless. Ratzinger mentions that «meaning is the bread on which man, in the intrinsically human part of his being, subsists. Without the word, without meaning, without love he falls into the situation of no-longer-being-able-to-live, even when earthly comfort is present in abundance»[63]. History moves forward and changes. However, one thing remains constant: humanity itself. As a matter of fact, technology and institutions nowadays are quite different than in the past, but human beings are the same; that is «why we can still find ourselves between the pages of the Bible, in the writings of Confucius or within the tragedies of Sophocles and Euripides. These classics were created by humans just like us, hence we feel that they talk about us»[64].
«In short, there is no escape from the great dilemma of being human»[65]. In the current world, humanity is undeniably advancing toward a reality increasingly shaped by technology, AI, and the precision of algorithms. Indeed, Harari portrays this reality with extreme accuracy. The algorithms comprehend us more than we understand ourselves. Nonetheless, this technology does not always lead to fulfillment. Instead, it often produces a profound emptiness within the human spirit. It is true that AI and technology surpass human capability in numerous ways, but it is mankind’s imperfection that remains an essential part of history. This beautiful paradoxical imperfection has given rise to several historical luminary figures such as Sophocles, Virgil, Dante, Cervantes, Leopardi, Keats, Bécquer, Melville, Kafka, and Tolkien. Artists such as Michelangelo, Van Gogh, Renoir, Caravaggio, Raphael, Velázquez, and Bernini; composers including William Byrd, Bach, Händel, Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, and Chopin; and heroes such as Ulysses, Achilles, Hector, Scipio, and Julius Caesar. Through this penultimate imperfection, a humble group of fishermen completely shaped the trajectory of centuries. In this way, history is a dialogue between the divine and humanity, wherein God inscribes perfect stories through the often crooked lines of human endeavor.
Again, rather than endorsing one view over the other, this thesis seeks to inform the reader with a richer understanding of these perspectives, in such a way that the reader might discern with responsibility their implications. The choice of which vision to embrace or how to integrate their insights rests with the reader.
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[1] Cicero, De Oratore, Harvard University Press, Great Britain (1942), II, 36.
[2] K. Bradley, Slavery and Society at Rome, Cambridge University Press, Great Britain 1994, 7.
[3] Y. N. Harari, Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind, Harper Perennial Publishers, Canada 2015, 241.
[4] Ibid., 241.
[5] J. Ratzinger, Introduction to Christianity, Herder and Herder, New York, United States 1970, 186.
[6] J. Ratzinger, The Theology of History in Saint Bonaventure, Cluny Media Editions, Rhode Island 2020, 19.
[7] Y. N. Harari, «Homo Deus: A Brief History of Tomorrow», 223.
[8] Cfr. I. Parker, «Yuval Noah Harari’s’ History of Everyone, Ever», The New Yorker 100, February 10, 2020, in https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2020/02/17/yuval-noah-harari-gives-the-really-big-picture (referenced on March 22, 2025)
[9] Cfr. Y. N. Harari, «Yuval Noah Harari», 2025, in https://www.ynharari.com/about/ (referenced on March 15, 2025)
[10] Cfr. Ibid.
[11] Cfr. Ibid.
[12] Y. N. Harari, «Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind», 3.
[13] Ibid., 25.
[14] Ibid., 27.
[15] Cfr. Y. N. Harari, «Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind», 78 – 79.
[16] Ibid., 79.
[17] This is another way to refer to Dr. Yuval Noah Harari
[18] Ibid., 179.
[19] Ibid., 185.
[20] Cfr. Ibid., 190.
[21] Ibid., 251.
[22] Cfr. Y. N. Harari, Homo Deus: A Brief History of Tomorrow, Harper Collins Publishers, United States 2017, 20 – 21.
[23] Ibid., 155.
[24] Y. N. Harari, «Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind», 31
[25] Cfr. Y. N. Harari, «Homo Deus: A Brief History of Tomorrow», 1.
[26] Ibid., 33.
[27] Ibid., 46.
[28] Ibid., 20 – 21.
[29] Ibid., 33.
[30] Ibid., 34.
[31] J. Ratzinger, «The Theology of History in Saint Bonaventure», 19.
[32] Cfr. J. Ratzinger, Milestones: Memoirs 1927 – 1977, Ignatius Press, United States 1998, 8.
[33] Ibid., 8
[34] Habilitation is the highest university degree, or the procedure by which it is achieved, in Germany, France, Italy, Poland, and some other European and non-English-speaking countries. The candidate fulfills a university’s set criteria of excellence in research, teaching, and further education, which usually includes a dissertation. It is often a qualification for full professorship in those countries.
[35] When Joseph Ratzinger was named Archbishop in 1977, he chose the motto «Cooperatores Veritatis» («Co-workers of the Truth»), inspired by 3 John 1:8. This phrase reflects his lifelong commitment to seeking and proclaiming truth through theological scholarship and pastoral ministry, emphasizing collaboration in the mission to uphold divine truth.
[36] M. Bardazzi, In the Vineyard of the Lord, Rizzoli International Publications, United States 2008, 102.
[37] J. F. Thorton & S. B Varenne, The Essential Pope Benedict XVI: His Central Writings & Speeches, Harper Collins Publishers, United States 2007, 34.
[38] J. Ratzinger, «The Theology of History in Saint Bonaventure», 19.
[39] Ibid., 10.
[40] Ibid., 109.
[41] Joseph Ratzinger examines the influence of Joachim of Fiore on Saint Bonaventure’s theology of history, highlighting how Joachim’s eschatological framework, particularly his Trinitarian division of historical ages, posed both a challenge and an opportunity for Bonaventure. As Minister General of the Franciscan Order, Bonaventure critically engaged Joachim’s ideas to address the spiritualist tendencies within the Order, integrating them into a Christocentric theology of history that positioned Christ as the midpoint rather than the endpoint of time.
[42] Ibid., 109.
[43] Cfr. Ibid., 99.
[44] Ibid., 132.
[45] J. Ratzinger, «Introduction to Christianity», 26.
[46] Cfr. Ibid., 31- 35.
[47] Ibid., 37.
[48] Ibid., 143 – 144.
[49] Ibid., 110.
[50] Ibid., 112.
[51] Ibid., 112.
[52] Ibid., 112.
[53] Ibid., 188.
[54] Ibid., 188.
[55] J. Ratzinger, «The Theology of History in Saint Bonaventure», 20.
[56] Ibid., 98.
[57] J. Ratzinger, «Introduction to Christianity», 188.
[58] Cfr. Ibid., 246.
[59] Y. N. Harari, «Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind», 151.
[60] J. Ratzinger, «The Theology of History on Saint Bonaventure», 77.
[61] Y. N. Harari, «Homo Deus: A Brief History of Tomorrow», 401.
[62] J. Ratzinger, «Introduction to Christianity», 246.
[63] Ibid., 42.
[64] Y. N. Harari, «Homo Deus: A Brief History of Tomorrow», 46.
[65] J. Ratzinger, «Introduction to Christianity», 20.
