Introduction
During Mexico’s time as a Viceroyalty, the Spanish encountered a significant challenge: the cultural divide between themselves and indigenous groups. Uniting these diverse populations required fostering deep connections. The religion needed to be spread, and common values needed to be adopted by the Indians. Even though the “new Religion” for the natives was easily accepted, there was a need for unity between the new culture that just arrived at the continent and the new Christians that were converted.
Almost naturally the architecture, especially in Churches, became a subtle way of uniting groups. Spaniards as well as indigenous people worked for creating the correct places for worship. They needed the correct environment, so that both cultures could feel the sacredness of the place. Both cultures needed to feel represented in the art portrayed in the sacred spaces for the liturgy. In this context two different cultures created new common styles and forms of construction, blending different techniques and ideas for the people. Catholicism brought valuable tradition but embracing the dignity and richness of the New World. Even though there was a combination of groups and beliefs the evangelization of Christian Faith was orthodoxly transmitted. We find that indigenous accepted new religious beliefs but integrating their own culture and traditions. This paper argues that sacred architecture in New Spain, shaped by Catholic theology and indigenous influences, served as a critical tool for unifying diverse cultures and fostering a shared Christian identity.
Historical Context
In 1519, an expedition into Mexico began, led by Hernán Cortés. This expedition ended with the conquest of the Aztec Empire in Tenochtitlán in 1521. From this moment a new era started for the natives and Spaniards. The lands that once belonged to the Aztec Empire and various native groups became part of the Kingdom of Spain.
Many assume the Spanish arrived in the Americas primarily to exploit resources, prioritizing their own interests over the rights and dignity of indigenous peoples. During this era the missionaries (friars, priests and religious brothers) were deeply concerned on the rights and flourishing of the natives. They were concerned not only in the Native Americans as individuals, but also as a society. The missionaries were focus in creating a new Society based on Christian beliefs. These different settlements based on Catholic doctrine, started spreading all around the new continent.
Establishing dominion over the New Spain, was an arduous task that took years to the Spaniards to accomplish. At every region that the Spaniards arrived, they had the necessity of establishing a new society. We must admit that on numerous occasions the methods used by the “conquistadores” were based using force and military subjugation. This led to abuses that in different moments culture, tradition and the richness of the original people, was destroyed and aggravated. They were concerned with the exploitation and production of goods but also with the creation of cities, towns, hospitals and schools. The colonizers wanted to achieve different goals that would benefit the crown and their own empire. Looking for their own good does not mean that they acted in a pure utilitarian way. The colonizers were also motivated in bringing to the natives the religion, faith and cultural achievements of Europe.
The new lands and territories gathered completely different cultures. Even the Aztec empire was not conformed by a homogeneous group. All the continent was composed by different ethnical groups in some cases almost tribes, that had some contact with other indigenous ethnics. We find in the center of the country, in Mexico City, the Aztec empire that worked as the ruler group that subjugated other native towns. This dominance worked with a military control above the other nations.
After the conquest and final defeat of the Mexicans, obtained by the Spaniards with the help of other Indian ethnics, Mexico achieved a certain unification. The challenge of generating one nation, one identity for the people in so vast domains was not an easy task. It was a challenge to bring harmony among different people, that used to be deadly enemies. The military strength of the conquerors and the created alliances, allowed territorial unification. But it was necessary to bring a common culture that would actually bring peace to the inhabitants of the new nation.
The Church was especially concerned with respecting the dignity of the native groups. Even characters like the popes created documents that would protect the well-being and dignity of the Native Americans.[1] In the year of 1523 the first Franciscans friars, arrived at the continent, setting in motion the spread of the religion. It is especially important that these friars deeply believed in the ideal of forming a new society in the continent that would be the recreation of the Heavenly Jerusalem. The new continent would be the perfect place for implementing their utopian thoughts.
The means that they used for the propagation of the faith, the education and consolidation of a Christian nation were several and diverse. The learning of Indian languages, dialogue with the chiefs of the towns and especially the artworks were some of the means used for their conversion. The art was something that spread all over the continent, it worked as a faithful transmitter of the Catholic doctrine. But the construction of a Christian country was not reduced to a theoretical approach but also to a practical one. This led to the development of architecture on the new continent.
The age of the Vice Reigns in Latin America was one of the periods of bigger development of construction in history. In a small period of time, all around the continent suffered a building race.[2] There was a great need to provide and create proper places for the new society that was flourishing.
One building was special in the middle of this new era. The Sacred Architecture, (Churches, chapless, shrines, cathedrals, etc.) will have an outstanding place on the new continent. The Sacred architecture of this period will have an important place for the new cultures. It will be a place of unity between the different classes. The arrival of a new social order for the indigenous people, will create the necessity for a way of expression through art, this will take place in the churches.
Church and Religious Belief as Coercive Factor
It may seem reductive to attribute New Spain’s unity, values, and architectural developments solely to Catholicism. But it is necessary to understand the development of the continent with the lens of a Christian view. Religion and especially the Church as an institution, set the guidelines that directed not only the construction of places for society, but also the daily lives of the citizens.[3] It flourished in the continent a deep true religiosity with a lot of expressions of it, especially through art. We will see on the following pages how art helped to unite a Christian society and how the Indians faithfully accepted the religion. This adoption by the Indians created a marvelous expression of art proud for our contemporary society.
“Architecture is the built form of ideas; church architecture is the built form of theology. As goes the ideas, so goes the architecture.”[4] This principle was something that the missionaries that arrived at New Spain had as a fixed mark. It is a constant throughout the viceregal period in the construction of churches and even cities. The construction of this continent was not only based on renascentist ideals about beauty and esthetics but also in a deep knowledge about social, philosophical and theological principles.
Some special characteristics in architecture are the ones called by Saint Thomas Aquinas as integritas (wholeness), claritas (clarity) and consonatia (harmony). These characteristics are translated into the building as the necessary elements of beauty. These elements mean that the creation of something good, noble and beautiful must have certain principles. But these principles are not just necessary for a church but must reflect the reality and ideals that society is living. These concepts are necessary elements for a society. The society of New Spain, colonizers and missionaries especially, were concerned on having these principles applied to the built form of ideas, but also in the built form of society and people’s lives.[5] Architecture reflected the reality that they were living as a society, but it also worked as a tool for unifying cultures and peoples.
Many of the missionaries that arrived at the continent pursued the goal of creating a society that aimed for perfection. Utopian ideas of a God’s society permeated the work of the missionaries. Many times, the thoughts of the missionaries were rooted in the philosophers’ ideas about society. This set a clear aim for the creation of the new cities and towns. St Thomas Aquinas was especially important at stating how a dignified society should be. “Aquinas makes the point that man is a “social animal” and that it is “natural for man . . . to live in a group,” and this is because Aquinas believed that a community, which united many people’s abilities, would ensure that everybody’s needs would be satisfied. For Aquinas, cities would need to follow the laws created by humankind, but he insisted on the preeminence of God’s laws. [6]
For instance, the city of Puebla was originally planned as a project that aims to recreate the celestial Jerusalem. Initially it was thought to be a city mainly of Spaniard population. The colonizers faced the need of constructors; The Indians were attracted by the salary that they would receive and migrated to the new establishment. Although it did not achieve its original purpose of becoming a Spaniard population city, it adopted liberal laws. It was the first city of New Spain to reduce drastically the encomienda system in its population.[7]
The encomienda system was a social organizing form. The characteristic of this system was that a certain group of Indians were entrusted to the protection and spiritual evangelization of a Spaniard in exchange of labor and tribute. This system developed in a way of slavery that often-allowed abuses from the colonizers to the indigenous population. The monarchs of Spain tried on several occasion to fight against these problems, but it was not always successful.[8] That is why it was a remarkable success, that Puebla acted contrary to this system.
We can find even some religious artistic depictions such as the one by Martín de Vos representing the Heavenly Jerusalem. These art pieces represent the city depicted with a shocking similarity with the architectural design of convents and monasteries of New Spain that were built at the same time. This is a portrayal of how the missionaries of New Spain considered themselves as part of a new society that lived transcendental values that aimed for a real Christian life, including all the members of the society. [9]
Missionaries aimed for the creation of this celestial Jerusalem, a Christian nation far from the vices and sin of the old world. They had a lofty goal aiming not only to create a nation empty of sin but also to be a light for the world. <<In reality, for Motolinia, the act of founding a new city in the New World meant advancing[10] >>.
Missionaries found numerous difficulties in the process of evangelization. They needed to approach to a completely different culture with traditions contrary to Christianism. The native religions were deeply rooted in a polytheistic conception. The new languages were a challenge (not just in the difficulty but also in the diverse amount of these, that varied from region to region). The mistrust generated by the Spaniard abuses to the Amerindian population was a difficult reality to overcome throughout the time.
For the missionaries was an unquestionable need the evangelization and conversion of the Indians. Although some Spaniard colonizers, considered the Indians as not fully humans, the missionaries from the very beginning thought that the Native Americans were dignified for receiving sacraments. They preached hardly to grant them the baptism and right for being citizens of Spain. In 1537 and 1542 the debate of the humanity of the Indians was ended with respectively, the pontifical declaration of their humanity and the granting of citizenship by the crown to the natives[11].
Even though the missionaries faced all kind of problems for the spread of the gospel, the fruits were remarkable after few years. The apparition of our Lady of Guadalupe created a boom of conversion among indigenous people. It is usually referred to as a miracle the conversion of so many people in such a fast way. Probably the iconography and the symbolic elements that were in the image had a great influence. Although it may look like an image it is also more similar to an Aztec codex. The different symbols were associated with the Aztecs’ beliefs and created a great impact on the people.
From now on, the work of the missionaries will not stop. Arduous labor of evangelization and preaching will be the constant of every religious in the territory. Such a great labor of evangelization will give great fruit among the natives, and they will appreciate deeply the religion transmitted. We keep numerous literary works written by the missionaries, that perhaps with an exaggerated enthusiasm portray what they were living. “History of the Indians of New Spain” by Fray Toribio de Benavente is filled of anecdotes of how the indigenous population asked and pleaded for the sacraments. Entire towns went to receive the friars asking for the baptism and religious instruction. It seemed that they received the teachings entirely open and longing for faith. “Indians from various towns came out, earnestly requesting the friars accompany them to share the word of God”.[12]
Usually, the evangelization in the New World is referred to as the “Spiritual Conquest”. This term portrays a cruel way of evangelization, and it is easy to imagine that the methodology used for evangelizing was forcing the Indians and destroying their culture. We find cases in which conversion was rough and brutal, especially when it was done by Spaniards. But we find in the beginning of the evangelization, the concern of the friars and clerics to spread the gospel through teachings and dialogue.
The Spaniard crown was really concerned about the wealth and flourishing of the Amerindians. For that reason, in 1573 an official document “Laws of the Indies” was promulgated by the king. It is remarkable how this document transmits constantly the duty of the colonizers to protect and create a fair society for the natives. It marks that any construction or building of a city should not be done if it generates a perjury to the Indians. The king also highlights the necessity of converting the natives to Catholicism. Even though it is a mandate that the king does, he says as well that the conversion should be done in a peaceful way and always allowing freedom to the natives. He asks that the Indians should be the ones that have to ask for becoming part of the Catholic Church and the pagan temples and idols should be destroyed by themselves. In conclusion the replacement of the old religion for Catholicism in a Christian society should be done by the natives themselves.[13]
We can say that due to the arduous work, constant effort of evangelization and true interest by the missionaries for the wealth of the Indians the Catholic faith was accepted as few times in the history of the Church. We can say as well that the faith was truly accepted by the Indians and not just a fake façade to avoid problems with the Spaniards. Testimony of this is that even after the independence and even until now days, the Catholic religion is still the dominant and full of expressions in most of the Mexican population. In the following chapter we will see how this unity of faith in a society was present and applied in the architecture of the viceregal New Spain.
Unity in Construction
General Picture
As we mention the Viceregal period was one special moment of fruitful development of architecture in the modern era. The number of buildings and the quality of these ones is remarkable. We can find palaces, churches, cathedrals, houses, hospitals, convents. Specially the baroque architecture can be found in most of the constructions of this period. The sacred architecture had an outstanding place in the decoration of it. We can find great examples of this art, not only in Mexico but in all the Latin-American countries.
Most of the construction work was done by the indigenous people, who first needed to learn the European constructions techniques. The first years of the viceregal, the planning was mainly led by Spaniards, that had a better education in architecture. Although the creation of the places was in the European manner, most of the constructions, had a strong Native American influence and indigenous characteristics, combining different traditions. The result of this reality was constructions and churches for the new society.
These new societies that were arising all around the continent had an important nuance. The new nations will be the convergence of different ethnic groups, ergo the cities and towns will reflect the multi-identity groups. The architecture of the new continent will be, as well, the combination of different techniques, materials and styles for a new society. The Spaniards established themselves as the ruling class, bringing their culture with them. This created the need of creating cities on a Spaniard way.
The development in construction of different cities forced a combination of forces from the different groups. It was necessary the support of Indigenous and Spaniards, for development. Architectural projects were led by missionaries especially. We have as an example the construction of Puebla city that was mainly promoted by the bishop of Tlaxcala.
The Indians dedicated themselves to support and work for the construction of the cities and temples. A big proof of this was not only the number of constructions that were constructed in the period but also the dedication and quality of the same ones. While indigenous architecture was largely replaced by European styles, natives adapted and reshaped these foreign techniques to reflect their own cultural motifs. The people of the Americas added to this construction the characteristics, symbols and shapes proper of their own lands and cultures. This created a new Architecture that was the consequence of the merging cultures.
First Years
It is a fact that it was a difficult change for the indigenous people to adapt to new forms, spaces and environments in an architectonic way. For instance, during the first moments of construction of the new capital of New Spain, a group of indigenous people died during the construction of the new buildings. These tragedies were due to the reality of a new way of construction, new techniques and mechanisms that were unfamiliar to the inhabitants. They needed to adapt to foreign architecture, but later on, they mastered the techniques, creating not just new cities but doing it with marvelous beauty[14].
Mainly missionaries taught and transmitted knowledges and techniques of construction to the Indians. The native people had really skilled aptitudes in masonry. The capacity of construction and planning of cities was something that amazed the Spaniards from the very moment when they arrived at Mexico. Even though the natives were skilled there were some techniques that were unknown to them. They tried to imitate the concave form of caves, but they never succeeded in creating a vault ceiling. When the friars built from first time a vaulted chapel, the Indians were amazed and thought that the building would collapse.[15]
The Amerindians received this knowledge delightedly and soon they dominated the techniques. They started to build the chapel and churches by themselves after receiving the necessary instructions from the Spaniards. It is necessary to mention Friar Pedro de Gante, well instructed man born in present-day Belgium. Influential man and important in Spain but decided to travel to the new continent to set in practice his evangelizing fire. He learnt the native languages, wrote books in Nahuatl and led the creation of the first centers of education in America. He taught not only classical languages but also European sciences and arts, such as architecture and music.
He founded in Mexico City the school of “San Jose de los Naturales”. There the Indians received the instruction on diverse arts. After their formation many of the Indians returned to their villages to supply the towns with all artistic features, from the construction of buildings themselves to the clothes for liturgical acts. Even some of these Indians went to teach in the missions allowing a wider spread of artistic expression.[16] The formation of the Indians was such a priority for the missionaries, that Indian educational institutions, first preceded those of the criollos.[17]
Resources
The construction of the buildings and churches needed resources for the development. It is usually mentioned of how the Churches in Latinoamerica were constructed above teocallis (which were the places of pagan worship). The action of constructing religious buildings above others, was a traditional characteristic of the Aztecs. The “Templo Mayor” (temple mayor) of the Mexicans, has several layers of construction. The old places of worship were covered under earth as a symbol of respect as if it was a deceased relative. It was an act of respect. In some other cases they used the materials of past constructions for creating the new temples; this was a technique shared by both Indians and Christians. There is the case of the Mixteca culture, that still now days after the discovery of vestiges they include them in the churches as a sign of identity and acceptance of their inheritance but as a contribution to the Catholic Church, it is a way of reverence to the sacred.[18]
In the New Spain during the baroque period, especially in the 18th century we find a period of abundance and economic wealth. Most of the baroque projects had developments and upgrades in this period.[19] Even though we find that the richness of the country was distributed inequitably among the population, we find that all the churches in Mexico surged from a compound help of the population. The main resources for the construction of the temples came from the different layers of society. An example of this reality is the chapel of Our Lady of the Rosary in Puebla City.
This breathtaking religious construction, considered by the people of his era and land as the eighth wonder of the world, was dedicated in 1690. It is characteristic of this sanctuary the richness that covers it, all the walls are richly decorated with all kinds of ornamentation. We find paintings, sculpture, marbles, ceramics but especially gold leaf that covers most of the sanctuary. Due to the astonishing beauty and use of art for the chapel, the construction of the temple took several years. It was especially difficult to fund the gold for the construction. Mainly the funds for its construction were provided by the indigenous people of the area who were deeply interested and concerned with the project.[20]
The society of New Spain, especially during the baroque period of the XVII and XVIII centuries, mastered the European techniques and they felt proud of their achievements. Constantly the people of this continent were comparing their art quality with European art, and sometimes they even considered their art as superior in beauty and achievements.[21] One great example was the chapel of the rosary, mentioned earlier. This chapel will be only one of those great churches with abundance in ornamentation in the region.
It is noteworthy to mention the church of Santa Maria Tonantzintla in the same state of Puebla. Tonantzintla’s chapel is one of the greatest creations of Viceregal Architecture, super abundant ornamentation fills the space. It is remarkable how sculptures and reliefs are full of variations and religious language, but everything depicted in a much more local manner with numerous indigenous influences.[22]
Concrete Expressions
Friars saw the necessity of the correct places of worship for the Amerindians. This task was harder than it seems to us today. The Churches were especially the heart of the communities. They were situated in the center of the town, and they became the meeting place of the whole population.
The Churches as buildings served for different purposes. For indigenous people churches but especially convents, were places in which they found safety from the abuses of the “encomenderos”. Even the zone of the cloister (which is an area of the convents reserved just for the religious), was used if necessary for poor or sick people.[23] Churches and parishes worked as places for education and transmission of religious doctrine. Big amounts of the population converged in the churches to receive training.
Missionaries looked for the adaptation and creation of places that would help the Indians receive properly the faith. The solution that they created was the construction of open-air churches. A closed space of a church with small dimensions was inconvenient for the education. Indigenous traditions and religious ceremonies were related to open places that allowed a relation to the transcendental, beside the amount of people needed large places for preaching. The missionaries looked as well to create environments that helped people to accept easier the beliefs, or to find resonance of their old religions with Catholicism.
For Native Americans the cardinal points were a foundational concept for their beliefs systems. Most of the religious constructions of the temples and palaces were built in order to create a spiritual environment. That is why we find in indigenous cities a squared plan of the city, just as the “Templo Mayor”. Missionaries realized about these spiritual features that had the Amerindians and tried to create and adapt churches to provide a common religious language for the community.
The open space in the front of the churches also had a practical use. Most of the ceremonies of the Amerindians involved the performance of dances and rituals. As a way of preserving some of the traditions of the natives the missionaries allowed an adaptation of those dances into Catholic religion. The churches became a cultural place for expressing traditions. Missionaries even encouraged and celebrated the performing of the old traditions in a proper way. Fray Toribio de Benavente he relates in his books how usually in feasts as Corpus Christi, the indigenous inhabitants had dances in front of the Blessed Sacrament. He refers to this as a joyful practice that in the context of the celebration both Indians and Spaniards lived in communion. [24]
The sacraments are an essential part of the Christian tradition. It was one of the most important aspects of the faith. All these liturgical acts take place in the Church which was a symbol for the people of acceptance and belonging not just to the spiritual church but also to an actual community. The sacraments were received from the very beginning by the Indians, especially the baptism, which was deeply appreciated by the natives. Providentially the original cultures had some rituals similar to this sacrament, making it familiar and easy to accept. The newborn kids on the eighth day, were bathed and given a small shield and arrow to the boys and a small broom to the girls. The missionaries reinterpreted this ritual to signify the necessity to keep the soul clean and safe from the enemies of the spirit[25]. Usually in Christian tradition there is a designated place for the baptism (baptistery). This baptistery was usually one chapel at the beginning of the church, which was specially ornamented to give a deep significance to the sacrament. It is the moment of an initial communion among the people of God.
Other important celebration that had a profound meaning for Spanish people was the feast of Corpus Christi. This entirely Catholic feast had a great resonance for the native people especially those coming from the Aztec zone. The Aztecs had a religious celebration named Feast of “Panquetzalitztli”.
In this celebration the:
Priests of the “Templo Mayor” made an amaranth-dough image of their principal deity, Huizilopochtli. On the last day of Panquetzalitztli, one priest, carrying the breaded god, and followed by a procession, would race around a course that symbolically represented both the four corners of the Aztec realm and the directions of the ancient Aztec “exodus” migration to Lake Texcoco.[26]
This cosmological ritual, due to its similarity to the feast of Corpus Christi, had a great influence in the early life of viceregal society. This ancient ritual influenced architecture of churches creating a unique feature. “Posas” chapels were built in the patios of the churches to recreate the Aztec ritual in a context of Christian faith. These “posas” were squared small buildings in the four corners of the patios, with two arched entrances and a pyramidal roof structure. They included Catholic motifs but usually having clear Indigenous characteristics and language, to transmit Catholic faith. These buildings were an essential part of the indigenous groups to feel part of the Christian community, and owners of their own churches and places of cult.[27]
Another clear example is the positioning of a cross in the middle of the patios (courtyards) of the churches. It is noteworthy that these crosses created a new portrayal. The crosses included Nahuatl symbols that spoke directly to the Indians, but transmitting the Catholic faith.[28] These different adaptations of buildings and art were things adapted for communion and created a deep sense of “one same people”. Faith united the cultures, but it was expressed in different languages and motifs that included everybody.
The construction of churches also served a practical purpose: in community building and the establishment of social order. Churches became focal points for community gatherings, celebrations, and social activities. The missionaries understood that a strong community rooted in faith could provide stability and cohesion, which were essential for the flourishing of both the Church and the colonial society.
Conclusion and Legacy
The viceregal period in Mexico was a moment of fruitful architectural development. The merger of two completely different cultures created some of the most beautiful artistic developments in history. This fusion was possible thanks to the Catholic faith that was embraced by the Amerindians. They accepted the Catholicism and permeated the faith with their old traditions and customs. This openness of heart by the Indians favored the Christian unity. The missionaries that arrived in America had the great ideal of creating a new Catholic society far from vices and sin. In this new society the ideal was that every Christian would be integrated and would become supporter of the development of the society.
The creation of this places of ideal worship, created the environment for consolidating a Mexican identity. Architecture worked as a medium for expressing beliefs and ideals. These artworks helped to express an identity that with the passage of the years shaped a nation and the individuals that inhabited this country. It was a way of uniting different traditions and heritage. A way for creating a unique reality that characterizes the Mexican people.
Mexican society but almost all Latin America in general, faces the problem of deep confrontation and division. Diverse fields of society are confronted in different areas. Division can be found in economic backgrounds, political ideas, religious beliefs, ethnicity, and racial origins, among other things. Therefore, it is necessary to rebuild unity among people. We should learn, with the example of the past generations, to understand and appreciate differences but with the purpose of integrating all good things into one reality. The fruit of this should allow us to feel identified and united in common ideas and values, so that we can build not only proper places of communion but also a society disposed to hear and value the other ones.
Bibliography
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- L. BURKE, Architecture and Urbanism in Viceregal Mexico, Routledge, New York 2021.
- DE BENAVENTE MOTOLINÍA, Historia de los Indios de la Nueva España, Digital Editor Titivillus, 2024.
THE EDITORS OF ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, <<Encomienda>>, 2025, in https://www.britannica.com/topic/encomienda, (referenced on May 2, 2025).
- EDGERTON, Theaters of Conversion Religious Architecture and Indian Artisans in Colonial Mexico, University of New Mexico Press, Hong Kong, 2001, 71
FELIPE II, <<Ordenanzas de descubrimiento, nueva población y pacificación de las Indias dadas por Felipe II, el 13 de julio de 1573, en el bosque de Segovia.>> 2010, in https://www.culturalenergy.org/images/Ordenanzas1573.pdf (referenced on May 9, 2025).
- R. MCNAMARA, Catholic Church Architecture and the Spirit of the Liturgy, Hillenbrand Books, Chicago 2009.
Fr. A. PEINADOR O.P., Visit the Rosary Chapel, Koinonia, Puebla, Mexico 2006.
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- VARGASLUGO, México Barroco, Salvat, Querétaro 1993.
[1] Cfr. J. SCHLARMAN, Mexico Tierra de Volcanes, Editorial Porrúa, Ciudad de México 2018, 88
[2] Cfr. G. A. BAILEY, Art of colonial Latin America, Phaidon, New York 2005, 209
[3] Cfr. E. VARGASLUGO, México Barroco, Salvat, Querétaro 1993, 23
[4] Cfr. D. R. MCNAMARA, Catholic Church Architecture and the Spirit of the Liturgy, Hillenbrand Books, Chicago 2009, 8
[5] Cfr. D. R. MCNAMARA, Catholic Church Architecture …and the Spirit of the Liturgy, Hillenbrand Books, Chicago 2009, 24
[6] Cfr. J. L. BURKE, Architecture and Urbanism in Viceregal Mexico, Routledge, New York 2021, 11
[7] Cfr. J. L. BURKE, Architecture and Urbanism in Viceregal Mexico, Routledge, New York 2021, 25
[8] Cfr. THE EDITORS OF ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, <<Encomienda>>, 2025, in https://www.britannica.com/topic/encomienda, (referenced on May 2, 2025)
[9] Picture: Martin de Vos, Saint John Writing the book of Revelation,1558-1603, granted by Museo del Virreynato, Mexico State, https://www.facebook.com/photo?fbid=919007986934857&set=a.466544172181243
[10] J. L. BURKE, Architecture and Urbanism in Viceregal Mexico, Routledge, New York 2021, 9
[11] Cfr. J. F. SCHWALLER, The history of the Catholic Church in Latin America: from conquest to revolution and beyond, New York University Press, New York 2011, 61-62
[12] Cfr. T. DE BENAVENTE MOTOLINÍA, Historia de los Indios de la Nueva España, Digital Editor Titivillus, 2024, 108. (Translated by the author).
[13] Cfr. FELIPE II, <<Ordenanzas de descubrimiento, nueva población y pacificación de las Indias dadas por Felipe II, el 13 de julio de 1573, en el bosque de Segovia.>> 2010, in https://www.culturalenergy.org/images/Ordenanzas1573.pdf (referenced on May 9, 2025).
[14] E. VARGASLUGO, México Barroco, Salvat, Queretaro, 1993, 39
[15] S. EDGERTON, Theaters of Conversion Religious Architecture and Indian Artisans in Colonial Mexico, University of New Mexico Press, Hong Kong, 2001, 71
[16] G. A. BAILEY, Art of colonial Latin America, Phaidon, New York, 2005, 214
[17] Cfr. J. SCHLARMAN, Mexico Tierra de Volcanes, Editorial Porrúa, Ciudad de México, 2018, 166
[18] S. EDGERTON, Theaters of Conversion Religious Architecture and Indian Artisans in Colonial Mexico, University of New Mexico Press, Hong Kong, 2001, 47
[19] E. VARGASLUGO, México Barroco, Salvat, Queretaro, 1993, 49
[20] Cfr. Fr. A. PEINADOR O.P., Visit the Rosary Chapel, Koinonia, Puebla, Mexico 2006, 14
[21] Cfr. E. VARGASLUGO, México Barroco, Salvat, Queretaro, 1993, 138
[22] Cfr. E. VARGASLUGO, México Barroco, Salvat, Queretaro, 1993, 141
[23] Cfr. S. EDGERTON, Theaters of Conversion Religious Architecture and Indian Artisans in Colonial Mexico, University of New Mexico Press, Hong Kong, 2001, 44
[24] Cfr. T. DE BENAVENTE MOTOLINÍA, Historia de los Indios de la Nueva España, Digital Editor Titivillus, 2024, 88
[25] Cfr. T. DE BENAVENTE MOTOLINÍA, Historia de los Indios de la Nueva España, Digital Editor Titivillus, 2024, 111
[26] S. EDGERTON, Theaters of Conversion… 63-64
[27] Cfr. S. EDGERTON, Theaters of Conversion Religious Architecture and Indian Artisans in Colonial Mexico, University of New Mexico Press, Hong Kong, 2001, 64
[28] G. A. BAILEY, Art of colonial Latin America, Phaidon, New York, 2005, 223
